The Assassin Strikes Again

Once there lived a man named Jack. Every day he woke up refreshed and renewed. Jack started the day by having a nice big stretch, and then he did 100 press-ups. He took a cold shower and brushed his teeth with Sensodyne Jack dressed him self in casual clothes and left for work. Jack has a usual profession. He is hired by rich and powerful people to murder the innocent and honest. Jack became an assassin when he was a teenager. During his childhood he had been kind, generous and helpful boy. One day he was walking home with his friends. Jack's friends suggested that they should go through the alley because it was a shortcut home. Jack agreed and so did the others. They walked through the dark, deep and frightening alley, then they saw a gang of bullies in the alley but they decided not to run. It was a bad decision. The biggest bully started straight away on Jack's smallest friend Mark. Jack consumed with anger, picked up a iron bar and whacked it down violently on the bully's head â€Å"Ahhhh† Jack yelled ferociously, the bullies terrified ran away as fast as they could Jack kept on hitting and hitting the bully until he could not move a muscle. His shocked friends knew he had killed him. They ran way in different directions. The police arrived. Jack ran as fast as he could, until he was out of breath, Even now he's still running and running away from the Police. News travelled fast and within months rich and powerful people were begging Jack to kill their enemies. During a few years Jack was responsible for 15 deaths of innocent people. He was there offered one million pounds to murderer a man called Tom Matthews by his former friend Reece Jones. Tom and Reece had been best friends. Tom was a kind, generous and an intelligent man. Tom had a beautiful wife names Angela. They had just got married three months ago; Tom had joined Reece's company shortly before. Every day he dressed in a black suit and went off early in the morning to work. He was on time every day and ready to go. Tom had a poor family back ground and was determined to make best of his chances. Reece had a wealthy back ground and was always wasting money on gambling. He was always late for work, Reece was very jealous of Tom. One day Tom got promoted to Assistant Manager, Reece was so furious he said â€Å"that's it! I will have Tom murdered!† When he finished work, he rushed home to call an assassin and arranged a meeting outside an abandoned house. He gave Tom's details and his picture to Jack. Reece paid à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½100, 000 in advance the rest to follow when the job was done. Jack researched Tom's lifestyle carefully and worked out when Tom would be alone. It was when he went through the junk yard as a shortcut to his home. Jack planned the murder methodically. He would use a rifle with a silencer to shoot him. On May 17th 2004 the plan took action. First he would pretend he was being attacked by a vicious gang He would run up to Tom and beg for his help and say â€Å"I am being attacked by a vicious gang who are trying to murder me.† Tom was driving on the way home from work, feeling tired and sleepy when he was driving through the junk yard, a man rushed in front of his car, Tom stepped as hard as he could on the brake Tom stormed out of his car and asked mysterious man â€Å"Are you Ok† the strange man replied â€Å"no I am not I am being chased by a vicious gang who want to murder me†. The stranger wore a black leather coat and a woollen knitted scarf covering him from the misty fog and cold. The man told Tom he was delivering a package and was shocked when he saw a gang of teenagers brutally murdering an innocent man. Tom went a few steps ahead to see whether he could locate the gang. Jack took out his rifle from his right coat pocket and pointed it at when Tom looked at Jack with astonishment and a fear of death, Jack shot Tom with no hesitation or any mercy the bullet tore through the muscles as it went for the heart of Tom. Tom could see the blood was red As a red paint. Tom could see the blood on Jacks shoes as he fell on to the ground as he was falling he repeatedly asked â€Å"why†, â€Å"why† When he fell on to the ground there was silence. Jack made Tom's murder seem like an accident he put Tom into the car and drove Tom off the cliff. The next day Jack received the full payment from Reece. As Jack was reading the news paper, he saw that Tom's death made the front page. Seeing Tom's wife's picture made him realise that Tom's wife was the girl he loved when he was in school. After thinking for several hours he came up with the decision that he should surrender to the police. The next day he stood in front of the police station thinking should I surrender to the police or not.

United States Cancer Society

The American Cancer Society is the nationwide community-based voluntary health organization dedicated to eliminating cancer as a major health problem by preventing cancer, saving lives, and diminishing suffering from cancer, through research, education, advocacy, and service. The Society is headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia, with state Divisions and more than 3,400 local Units. The Society is the largest source of private, nonprofit cancer research funds in the United States. The Society's prevention programs focus on tobacco control, sun protection, diet and nutrition, comprehensive school health education, early detection, and treatment. A variety of service and rehabilitation programs are available to patients and their families. Through its advocacy program, the Society educates policy makers about cancer and how it affects the individuals and families they represent. For more information contact the American Cancer Society at 1-800-ACS-2345 or visit www.cancer.org. The American Cancer Society is the nationwide community-based voluntary health organization dedicated to eliminating cancer as a major health problem by preventing cancer, saving lives, and diminishing suffering from cancer, through research, education, advocacy, and service. The American Cancer Society's international mission concentrates on capacity building in developing cancer societies and on collaboration with other cancer-related organizations throughout the world in carrying out the strategic directions of the American Cancer Society In 1947 the American Cancer Society also began its public education campaign about the signs and symptoms of cancer. They were termed â€Å"Cancer's Danger Signals†. The original 7 danger signals were: 2. A lump or thickening in the breast or elsewhere. 5. Persistent indigestion or difficult swallowing. 7. Any change in normal bowel habits. Ten years later, the order was rearranged putting the â€Å"unusual bleeding or discharge† in the first place. The signals were retitled and reworded slightly through the years, until the wording was changed in 1969 to the acronym CAUTION. The first letter of each sentence was lined up to spell CAUTION. Thickening or lump in the breast or elsewhere. Indigestion or difficulty in swallowing. The warning signals remained as above until their use was discontinued in the early 1980's. Some of the Society's patient service programs include: Transportation: Trained volunteers drive patients to and from treatment. This program is called Road to Recovery in some areas. Reach to Recovery: Trained volunteers who are breast cancer survivors visit women who have been recently diagnosed with breast cancer. The volunteers serve as positive role models, talk with women about their feelings and concerns, and provide written materials about breast cancer and related subjects. â€Å"TLC† is a â€Å"magalog† designed to provide information and special products, such as wigs, swimwear, turbans, hats, bras, and breast prostheses. Look Good†¦Feel Better: In partnership with the Cosmetic, Toiletry and Fragrance Association Foundation and the National Cosmetology Association, this free public service program is designed to teach women with cancer beauty techniques to help restore their appearance and self-image during chemotherapy and radiation treatment. Man to Man: This group program provides information about prostate cancer and related issues to men with prostate cancer and, in some areas, their spouse or significant other. Children's Camps: In some areas, the Society sponsors camps for children who have, or have had, cancer. These camps are equipped to handle the special needs of children undergoing treatment. Hope Lodge: Temporary accommodations are provided in some areas to cancer patients during their treatment. I Can Cope: This patient and family cancer education program consists of a series of classes. Doctors, nurses, social workers, and community representatives provide information about cancer diagnosis and treatment, as well as assistance in coping with the physical and emotional challenges of a cancer diagnosis.

Putting an End to Poverty

A young boy walks through the mud bare-footed towards his one room shack. He opens the waterlogged door to find his young mother feeding his eighteen month old sister cold beans. He walks towards the kitchen, which is really just a three-legged table, a lawn chair and a stove, and scoops the remaining beans from the stove onto a plate for himself. He gives his mother a kiss on the cheek and walks towards his corner of the room. His mother wipes a tear from her eye. Tonight she did not eat dinner with her children; she did not eat at all just as she had not eaten the night before. This scene did not happen in a third world country like one might have believed. It happens everyday here in America. With the Presidential Elections quickly approaching, the candidates should focus on certain issues such as poverty and welfare. To help put a stop to poverty, the candidates must focus on the children living in the destitution, the education of the families, and the monetary wages of the families that are often making less than $15,000 a year. Politicians believe these things to be true in order to cut down on the poverty level. Putting an end to poverty starts with the children of the families. Vice President Al Gore feels very strongly about this. If the government provides nutritional support programs and food stamps, the likelihood that the children will become mature and flourish increases. Galbraith feels the same was as Gore. â€Å"If the children, though badly fed at home, are well nourished at school†¦ then there is a chance that the children of the very poor will come to maturity without inhibiting disadvantage. † (Galbraith, 246) If the physical well being of the children is watched very closely, then this would decrease the probability of poverty when the children are adults. Programs that could help the poverty level include Gore†s idea to expand the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC). By doing this, the EITC would reduce poverty and child poverty rates. The EITC has already lifted 4. 3 million people out of the poverty level, 2. 3 of which were children. â€Å"(If the) physical well-being of the children is vigilantly watched†¦ then there is a chance that the children†¦ will come to maturity†¦ (246). † Secondly, the Governor of Texas, and Republican candidate for the 2000 Presidential Election feels that education is an important way to end poverty. George W. Bush feels that giving federal funds towards school districts in poverty-stricken areas will help expand the number of children and families that will rise above the poverty level. â€Å"We will give schools new freedom to excel in exchange for proven results. When a school district receives federal funds to teach poor children, we expect those children to learn. And if they don†t, parents should get the money to make a different choice. † (George W. Bush www. vote-smart. org/speeches/mtv. phtml? func=speech=m00) Bush also feels that money should be given to those children that are pursuing secondary education. Providing a $1,000 grant to students who took Advanced Placement and college classes in high school is just one example to encourage students of all social classes to try their hardest. Bush also provided the idea that better and safer schools should be built in the impoverished areas. Like Bush, Galbraith feels that education is a very important issue in the fight to end poverty. â€Å"The effect of education and related investment in individuals is to help them overcome the restraints that are imposed by their environment. (246) If the government helps to make the schools more effective in teaching, then the schools will make the poverty level more effective in decreasing. Lastly, the government must help families learn how to manage their finances. The two major candidates for the Presidential Election did not cover this topic. Obviously Mr. Gore and Mr. Bush did not feel that this would have been a successful idea. Galbraith on the other hand, feels that this is very important to help rid the country of poverty. The only way to solve the problem of poverty is to help people help themselves. † (245) One might, however, realize that society would not want the government so closely involved in their lives. This issue would not be of concern towards the Presidential Candidates, but of the Internal Revenue Service (IRS). So in that sense, the government is involved with the finances of the people of America, whether they like it or not. The hopes of a nation are to get rid of all poverty. They want to feed and cloth and educate the little boy that lives in the one-roomed shack. They want to teach the parents of that little boy so that way, they can be hired at better paying jobs; they want to help the people with their finances. The man that wins this presidential election is going to have to understand that there is poverty out there, and that there are things that he can do about it. William Pitt once said â€Å"Poverty is no disgrace but it is damned annoying. † Galbraith answered that with â€Å"In the contemporary United States, it is not annoying but it is a disgrace† (247). The leaders of today should help diminish the poverty level from a disgrace to non-existent.

EMILY DICKINSON Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

EMILY DICKINSON - Research Paper Example However, it was this lack of human contact and her inability to form relationships that kept her well-behaved and out of trouble, making her a favorite among her relatives, especially her aunt Lavinia. It was this aunt who called attention not only to Dickinson’s quiet demeanor, but also to Dickinson’s affinity for the piano when she was only two years of age. Wanting to encourage Dickinson’s intelligence and musical talent, and because he held education in high regard, Dickinson’s father made sure that his children were properly educated from early ages. As such, he also played a very active role in their education, always listening with eagerness as his children shared what they had learned. The regular involvement in Dickinson’s life made him a favorite to his children; indeed, it had been noted that Dickinson and her siblings were not very fond of her mother, who was a cold woman. It was her father’s warmth and concern that kept Dickinson inspired to stay in school and hone her talents (Farr 76). During 1845 and 1846, Dickinson had fallen ill, keeping her out of school for almost nine months, yet when she returned, she was more than eager to get back into her studies. Even during her illness, she made sure to continue reading and writing, never wanting to cease the growth of her intelligence or put her father’s sacrifices for her education to waste. During and after her education, Dickinson continued to write, clearly having found the one thing in life that she wanted to do until her last breath. At the age of eighteen, Dickinson befriended her father’s attorney, Benjamin Franklin Newton, who was amazed by Dickinson’s talents. He introduced her to the works of William Wadsworth and Ralph Waldo Emerson, no doubt with the intent of encouraging her own writing talents. Newton died before Dickinson had made a name for herself, something that he had longed to see her do, but many of her poems were in written in memory of Newton or had Newton as the subject. As Dickinson entered adulthood, she found herself growing steadily depressed over the many deaths that had plagued her life. She became even more reclusive, though she never gave up her writing. Her father died from a stroke in 1874; though Dickinson didn’t attend his funeral, her father’s death was a catalyst in Dickinson’s life (Baker 209-211). When her mother died in 1882 from numerous illnesses, Dickinson was pushed further into seclusion, all but shutting herself completely away from the world. Dickinson found herself at an emotional rockbottom later in 1882 after the deaths of two close friends, as well as the death of her favorite nephew, who had died of typhoid fever. Dickinson continued to write poetry, but she stopped editing and organizing her work. Come 1884, Dickinson had grown worn out from all of the deaths that she had experienced, as they all seemed to have come one right after the other . Dickinson barely had time to grieve over one friend or family member before another died. The summer of 1884, Dickinson herself rapidly grew sick, becoming weak and succumbing to fainting spells. She was bedridden, though she kept up with her writing. Her poems became few, but she had composed a variety of letters to her few remaining friends and family members. Dickinson died on May 15, 1886 from kidney disease, though many people have speculated that Dickinson’

Internship Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Internship Paper - Essay Example This got me thinking that if as a country we could bring back industrialization to the US, rather than act as a service based country, then we could create more jobs. I also considered the counterarguments against this. Lower costs associated with outsourcing are probably the prime benefit that a company could get from outsourcing of business (Greaver 65). The company gets the work done at only a fraction of what it would have had to invest locally, all the while receiving products of high quality. Due to the difference in standard of living as well as pay that exist between the US and such countries as Mexico and China, outsourcing ensures lower labour costs. By outsourcing to these countries, companies can be guaranteed at least 60% savings on costs. Another advantage of outsourcing is the distribution of risk. When a company outsources certain functions, they also do away or distribute the risk inherent in running the particular function (Greaver 65). An example: if a company feels that management of the payroll is claiming operational money and time, then it can outsource the function to a service provider. Outsourcing also improves the quality of customer service. Outsourcing allows the company service their clients faster, decrease turnaround time, and give better quality. It allows the company to achieve better people management (Greaver 66). Since outsourcing ensures the necessary skills needed to run particular functions are taken care of, the company achieves greater flexibility in key resource investment. Instead of working toward hiring for back office operations, the company focuses on acquiring resources for core competency growth. Outsourcing to China has the advantage of time zone difference. While business is closed in the United States, Chinese operations could get work done. This is beneficial for industries which provide all hour customer support (Greaver 67). With the struggles of the US

The Role of Internal Auditors in the Corporate Governance Framework Essay

The Role of Internal Auditors in the Corporate Governance Framework - Essay Example Internal auditing, as a framework, has been established for serving the particular organizational need. This study focuses on the role of internal auditors in the corporate governance framework. This issue is explored by referring primarily to corporate governance, as part of modern businesses. Then the role of internal auditors in corporate governance is analyzed taking into consideration the following fact: in each business, the tasks developed by internal auditors may be differentiated. Still, the power of internal auditors to check business processes is standardized; internal auditors have access to all business operations, meaning that the full authorization of the auditors by the top management is considered as guaranteed (Rittenberg et al. 2011). However, despite the fact that the role of internal auditors is closely related to Corporate Governance, the involvement of the auditors in the activities and data of firms is often not welcomed, a phenomenon resulted from certain events, as analyzed below (Cascarino 2007). On the other hand, the accountability of internal auditors for the tasks assigned to them is full; this means that failures and mistakes while performing the internal auditing can lead to severe consequences for the auditors even if the latter has taken all appropriate measures for avoiding such outcome (Ridley 2008). These issues are discussed below with reference to the literature that has been published in this field. It is proved that internal auditing is a complex process and for this reason, the evaluation of its performance can be a difficult task, especially in countries where the regulatory framework for businesses is unclear. The term ‘corporate governance’ is quite broad. Indeed, in a relevant definition, the term ‘is defined as the total of operations and controls of an organization’ (Fama and Jensen 1983, in Karagiorgos et al. 2010, p.17).  Ã‚  

Analysis of the Agency's Policies, Procedures, and Plans Regarding Essay

Analysis of the Agency's Policies, Procedures, and Plans Regarding Unions, Privatization, Pensions, and Productivity - Essay Example Agency and Unions: The USCIS recognizes the Federation of American Government employees (AFGE) as a union that offers collective bargaining services to all employees of the organization who are not professionals. However, USCICS does not recognize senior management of the organization, professional employees, and any employee who is excluded from such kind of coverage by the labor relations statute, the Civil Service Reform act, and chapter 71 of the 5 USC, as part of the employees who are under the protection of AFGE (Tischauser, 2012). On this basis, the agreement between AFGE, and USIS to recognize the labor union as the exclusive agency responsible for protecting unprofessional employees from the organization was certified by the labor relations authority. This was in case number WA-RP-06-0008 and this was for the purposes of promoting the principles of collective bargaining between the agency, and its junior employees (Bjorklund, 2012). The USCIS under the guidance of 5 USC 7106 has created a policy whereby in any negotiation with labor unions, the agency will not compromise on the following areas of its operations (Homeland Security, 2012). i. In the determination of its budget, mission, internal security practices, number of employees, and the organization of the agency. ii. Hiring of employees, their retention, disciplinary actions, and their suspension from service due to their inefficiencies in service delivery. iii. In taking actions for purposes of carrying out the objectives of the organization during situations of emergencies. The USCIS while negotiating with AFGE agrees to allow the labor union to have a representation in any formal discussions between the representatives of the agency, and the unprofessional employees. This is irrespective of the number of employees under consideration. These formal meetings will occur if there are grievances amongst the various employees of the organization, and as such, the presence of labor officials will be needed (Doak, 2012). The agency will also supply the union with an advance notice of the impending meeting, and the documents containing the grievances of the unprofessional employees of the agency. On this basis, the agency would seek the corporation of AFGE in resolving their various disputes with its unprofessional employees. Agency and Privatization: One of the policies of the agency is to privatize some federal support positions that are found within the USCIS offices in New York, Newark, Los Angeles, and Miami. The functions that USCIS plans to privatize include the offices that deal with the processing and handling of asylum claims. In as much as the senior leadership of USCIS advocates for the privatization of these offices, junior and middle level employees are against the privatization of these kinds of offices. This is because they argue that these offices are very sensitive, and they require a high degree of confidentiality. On this basis, privatizing the functionalities of offices that deal with asylum could risk the lives of asylum seekers (UCSIS, 2007). This is because the information concerning the asylum seekers could fall into the wrong hands, and hence endanger the person seeking asylum, and his or her family. Furthermore, middle level and junior employees argue that the support staff found at the federal asylum offices perform a

Spiritual Belief Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Spiritual Belief - Essay Example In patience recovery, faith is important in contributing to the beliefs of the individual thus their ability to recover. The spiritual needs assessment of a relative to a patient helped reveal several demographic factors that may help devise proper psychological therapies for the patient thereby resulting in faster recovery. The assessment revealed that the patient had ardent faith in the Christian faith and was a staunch catholic. His beliefs were founded in the teachings of the Roman Catholic and so was his family’s. As a Christian ascribing to the doctrines of the faith, the respondent neither drinks nor smokes. Additionally, he portrays a social and loving personality often assisting those he interacts with whenever possible thus validating his support for the patient. The patient portrayed strong belief in the teachings of the faith thereby opting to live as per the demands of the Catholic Church. From the assessment, it became evident that one’s spiritual beliefs are important in determining their subsequent personalities. Religious beliefs contribute to the development of a personality within an individual as the interview portrayed. Most of the questions in the assessment tool sought to investigate the relationship between the faith and the social life of the individual. The respondent’s responses revealed a close relationship with the faith greatly influencing the social lives of the respondent (Reilly, 2011). Since the respondent is a catholic and that, the catholic teachings abhor alcoholism and cigarette. The respondent thus selects his social groupings carefully always avoiding smoker ad alcoholics. His religious beliefs thus influence the type of respondent’s lifestyle, such toxic substances as alcohol and cigarette affect health. By avoiding such for whichever reasons, one reduces chances of infections (Manent, 2011). Religious beliefs and the degree of beliefs in the teachings of a faith is a key factor that helps inf luence the type of lifestyle an individual leads. In this relation, religious beliefs thus influence the propensity of an individual being susceptible to certain lifestyle diseases such as those caused by alcohol, cigarettes and other religious contrabands. The assessment went well thereby revealing several important factors of religion that affect the health of an individual. Just as stated earlier, religion influences the relationship among people. The respondent’s belief in his faith that discourages discrimination resulted in an objective interaction between the respondent and the interviewer. The interaction was free and extremely interactive with the respondent opting to take the opportunity to pass some of his teachings to the respondent. The personal interaction between the respondent and the interviewer portrayed advanced development and maturity thereby leading to free flow of information from both sides. Such thereby contributed to the effectiveness of the study, w hich revealed several important facts about the relationship between religious belief, and lifestyle that is an important determinant of lifestyle diseases. Besides the personal relations between the respondent and the interviewer, communication between the two was effective a factor contributed to by several factors. The effectiveness of the interview ensured that the interviewee responded to all the questions and exhibited sincerity that improved the effectiveness of the study. The respondent owing to his inclination to his faith committed to the study and provided detailed answers to the questions in the tool. The free flow of information between the two permitted the respondent to provide examples of some of the issues he raised thereby developing factual relationship betw

Introduction to Critical Thinking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Introduction to Critical Thinking - Essay Example e of cancer is highly reported on men as compared to women since men are likely to be affected 3 times as compared to women (AGNEW, GILCHREST & BUNKER, 2005). Age bracket highly affected are those between 45 and 54 of age. Many cancers are caused by the ultra-violet radiation as this tends to suppress the immune functionality and the aging. Basing on the above fact about cancer there is an issue that tomatoes protect the skin against skin that would later prevent it against cancer infection (DELMAS, JANNIN & LATRUFFE, 2005). In this regard, this is the issue that I have chosen to discuss on in my paper. It is worthwhile noting that ultra-violet radiation from the sun exerts aging and carcinogenic effects on the skin through the oxidative stress, inflammation and damage of DNA. Due to these facts, there has been a lot of desire to find out more on skin cancer by the scientist community in using antioxidants from plant foods to protect against these damages. Through use of animal study, photo-protection has been demonstrated. This was achieved by use of variety of antioxidant supplements that involved green tea catechins, proanthocyanadins, resveratrol, and silymarin (SUN-WATERHOUSE, 2011). These substances are antioxidant. In addition, they are also able to absorb ultra-violet rays from the sun when applied typically, more so enable repair of damaged DNA and also reduce inflammations. Pink and red fruits such as tomato, grapefruit and papaya are thought to have lycopene a carotenoid antioxidant which is well known for its prostate cancer protective effects. This is usually of high content in well cocked tomato products such as tomato pastes. Lycopene is well known to be a very powerful antioxidant that is vitro which is a known to prevent or repair the damaged DNA that could lead to cancer development. Moreover, lycopene stimulates the production of antioxidant enzymes and hinders signals that could lead to development of tumours. Through recent research, it

Gordan Ramsay Essay Example for Free

Gordan Ramsay Essay Gordon James Ramsay was born on November 8th, 1966 in Johnstone, Renfrewshire, Scotland. He was raised in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, England. Ramsay had played football(soccer) all throughout this life. During his football career he endured many injuries which led up to a career ending knee injury. At the age 19, Ramsay enrolled at North Oxfordshire Technical College to study Hotel Management. After graduating college Ramsay worked in London and moved to France to learn classic French cuisine. While in France, Ramsay worked in Paris under Guy Savoy and Joel Robuchon, both Michelin-starred chefs for three years. After he had learned as much as he could, Ramsay took a year to work as a personal chef on the private yacht Idlewild which was based in Bermuda. Moving back to London he became the head chef at Aubergine which won him his first Michelin-star. In 1998 Ramsay opened his first restaurant in Chelsea which then gave him 3 Michelin Stars. Ramsay is one of only four chefs in the UK to maintain three Michelin Stars for his restaurant. He was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire from Queen Elizabeth II in the 2006 honors list for services to the hospitality industry. Ramsay has now published many books and has stared in various television shows. Gordon Ramsay has a aggressive leadership style. We classified him as having both Autocratic Leadership and Bureaucratic Leadership. Ramsay has a strong personality and from this comes the Autocratic leadership roles. We saw this in his television shows where he would shut you down if you did not meet his standards. It seems that it is Gordon Ramsay’s way or the highway. Ramsay poses his ideas quite firmly and is also quite by the book. He delegates jobs accordingly based on skill sets and he always demands professionalism. This is also why we thought Ramsay was a Bureaucratic leadership style. By always demanding excellence Ramsay motivates you to be the best you can be. He gives constructive criticism and educates others with his knowledge and skills. Ramsay inspires you to improve your skill set and be passionate.

Customer Value Management: Advantages and Disadvantages

Customer Value Management: Advantages and Disadvantages Executive Summary What is this report about? This report aims to identify the importance and long term benefits from adopting a customer value management (CVM) strategy for a life insurance company (â€Å"insurer†) in Singapore. It highlights the reasons why insurers need to adopt a CVM strategy and showcases the various means by which the strategies facilitate customer satisfaction which in turn results in profitability for the insurer. By following a well planned CVM Framework, an insurer will be able to analyze customer data, calculate profitability per customer, identify key customer drivers, and segment customers, thus targeting the right customer with the right product at the right time using the right channel of distribution. The report will benefit an insurer already based in Singapore as it highlights best practices and case studies of existing players in Asia and what they are doing to acquire and retain new customers in this region. The insurer can also focus on the key drivers and specific needs of the insurance customer in Singapore and position itself accordingly. Along with the CVM Framework, the analysis and recommendations from our research will benefit a life insurer in determining whether or not it is aptly positioned to penetrate the life insurance industry in Singapore and to a large extent the Asia Pacific market. Research Methodology For the purpose of this report we performed both primary and secondary research which assisted us in refining our objectives as described in Figure 1: Customer Value Management (CVM) Framework Based on our secondary research we described the process flow for a CVM framework for a life insurance company. The successful implementation of a CVM based strategy involved understanding and performing the following key processes: Best Practices of CVM in the Life Insurance Industry Highlights of the best practices followed by insurers, brokers and advisors in the Asia Pacific region are depicted. Introduction What is CVM? In industries where products, marketing promotions and channels are transitory, organizations are increasingly recognizing the importance of customer relationships. Today customer relationships play a very important role in increasing the profits of any organization. There are reports which suggest that customer retention of 5% may increase the profits of a company by 25% or more[1]. An organization experiences increase in profits primarily when the customer makes more purchases thereby offsetting the acquisition cost. Efficient customers over a period of time tend to be more cost effective to service as they are well versed to dealing with the organization. Loyal customers are a source of value for an organization but are scarce in nature and managers must maximize customer value and formulate strategies to successfully measure and align it with the organizations goals. As we evolve from product centric to customer centric marketing, a set of best practices are emerging to measure and increase the lifetime of the customer. These practices are defined as Customer Value Management[2]. CVM in the Life Insurance Industry The life insurance industry, long considered a pillar of stability, is now facing major challenges stemming from various internal and external factors: With increased competition as a result of globalization and the de-regulation of markets worldwide, several new entrants have entered the playing field making customer acquisition and retention all the more challenging. These new entrants include financial institutions such as banks and security firms. Advent of new technologies is challenging the effectiveness of previously established product distribution channels and has given the customer access to shop for life insurance products from multiple web based platforms such as www.policybazaar.com in India and www.compuquotes.com in the United States, with each offering different quotes for the same product offered by various organizations (life insurance companies)[3]. Rising costs as a result of high number of fraudulent activities is declining the life insurance industrys profitability. The strategies deployed by organizations to tackle these challenges will have a profound effect on both short and long term profitability. One such strategy that can make a positive impact on the profitability of an organization is Customer Value Management. Customer Value Management (CVM) from a life insurers perspective revolves around the identification of each profitable customer. Upon identifying this customer, CVM techniques can be used to measure the return on investment made by the organization in acquisition, growth and retention of the profitable customer. If the return on investment from the profitable customer is positive then the insurer should further implement strategies to maximize the lifetime value of its relationship. At the same time CVM solutions also facilitate an organization in: Segmenting customers by similar risk profiles Improving cross selling and up-selling programs Improving the effectiveness of the marketing campaign Maximizing profitability The successful implementation of a CVM strategy also involves the identification of the following: Right Customer Objective Identifying profitable customers and reducing customer acquisition costs. Traditional Practice Acquire competitors customers irrespective of profitability from each customer. Current Practice Acquisition of only profitable customers likely to generate repeat business. Example Consider two life insurance companies, one that focuses on providing life insurance products to â€Å"safe customers† and the other serves customers that fall in the high risk category; individuals engaged in adventure sports and activities such as mountaineering, cliff diving, cave exploration etc. The â€Å"safe customer† company would be acquiring the wrong customers by advertising in adventure sports magazines. Advantages Lower customer acquisition costs Higher profitability per customer Right Product Objective Providing the right customer with the right product thereby increasing customer retention and reducing costs. Traditional Practice Providing an array of life products irrespective of the customers preference and need resulting in customer dissatisfaction and attrition. Current Practice Providing only those products as desired by the right customer by segregating them on the basis of demographics, purchasing habits, lifestyle and risk factors. Example In Europe, life and health insurance companies determined that majority of their customers wanted to be fit and live a healthier lifestyle. Insurers provided their customers with a product which included incentives such as discounts on health club memberships and seminars on nutrition and healthy eating. Advantages Increase in customer retention Increase in cross and up selling opportunities Decrease in the number of claims filed Right Channel Objective Having identified the right customer and the right product for that customer, approaching the customer using a preferred channel of distribution. Traditional Practice Direct-response[4] marketing such as direct-mail and telemarketing targeted towards all customer segments including those that preferred a face-to-face meeting. Before the advent of Web 2.0 organizations relied on marketing intermediaries such as agents and brokers. Current Practice Besides using traditional direct-response marketing media and intermediaries, organizations have also launched web portals, comparison websites, and formed distribution alliances with financial institutions to sell products. Examples A study conducted by a British firm, Datamonitor in 2007, revealed that aggregators and comparison websites account for instigating 22% of individuals seeking motor insurance[5]. Likewise websites such as www.policybazar.com in India target price conscious customers seeking better deals online. Another study by Datamonitor revealed that in 2007, 37% of those individuals that purchased insurance online changed their provider upon renewal as compared to 17% that purchased through call centers[6]. The recent bank assurance alliance between Prudential Corporation Asia and UOB Life Insurance Limited will give Prudential the opportunity to sell its products to UOB customers in Singapore, Thailand and Indonesia. Advantages Offer more comprehensive life insurance products through direct-response marketing methods. High response rates from personalized direct-response methods Well informed customers and higher customer retention Right Timing Objective To make the sale and to win a customer for life by marketing the right product at the right time. Traditional Practice Organizations either marketed the right product at the wrong time or were unable to identify the right time to promote a product. In either case the customer was not acquired and/or retained. Current Practice With the use of sophisticated data analytic tools, organizations are able to predict customers future purchasing habits with the passing of each life stage. They then target the customer whose life insurance needs change due to: Marriage Birth of child Schooling of child Marriage of child Retirement Example Customer A bought a life insurance policy a couple of years ago and declined coverage for her immediate family citing lack of disposable income. However, Customer As preferences may have changed now and assuming her experience with the product, customer service, and the insurer has been satisfactory thus far and she has a higher disposable income than she did earlier, she can be contacted again for buying life insurance for her family. Advantages Increased cross and up selling opportunities Increased customer retention Decreased customer defection Customer Perception of the Life Insurance Industry Life insurance products are considered by many as complex yet much needed to minimize risk. Organizations have come up with products that meet the needs of the individual customer, however because the insurance contracts are fraught with complex legal terms, the customer ends up perceiving the life insurance industry as one that is not transparent and â€Å"user-friendly†. Furthermore, customers consider insurers as organizations that are only interested in ensuring that their customers pay their policy premiums on time; however when its time for the insurer to resolve a claim or a dispute the turnaround time is slow resulting in frustration and anxiety for the customer. To cite an example of customer perception towards the insurance industry, an insurance survey by IBM and University of St. Gallen in Switzerland revealed that roughly 60% of the participants[7] did not completely trust their insurance company. Because of such negative perceptions the insurer faces a high rate of customer defection. As the cost of acquiring a new customer are much more than the cost involved in retaining an existing one, insurers are coming up with innovative methods to build and foster a long term relationship with their valuable customers: Creating trust and reliability: More than 80% of the participants in the IBM and University of St. Gallen insurance survey placed a high value to honesty and trustworthiness and building a solid reputation in the market has become ever so more important for an insurer. Organizations are taking actions to build trust and credibility by: Modifying the legal jargon in insurance contracts to simple, brief and layman terms. Remodeling the direct selling agents compensation package to include commissions based on parameters such as repeat sales and customer retention, thereby encouraging them to act more customer oriented. Establishing social communities such as interactive web portals, blogs and chat forums, thereby fostering communication with the customer. This strategy has also given insurers with invaluable information about the customers evolving needs. Creating an ensemble of touch-points: This strategy involves personalizing the approach to customers and making meaningful touch points available to generate a positive and rewarding experience for customers and the organization. For instance, price sensitive customers rely on the Internet when shopping for a life insurance policy, whereas relationship oriented customers seek advice from insurance agents / brokers and banks. Various touch-points available for customers of a life insurer can be bucketed as depicted in Figure 6. Therefore, it is essential for an organization to plan carefully before deploying or cutting back on any of the above touch points. For instance, in the first quarter of 2009 tied agency channels contributed to 59%[8] of total new business generated in Singapore. If an insurer were to downsize its tied agency channel it could result in a high rate of customer defection for a customer segment that seeks a personal relationship based on reliability, sound advice, and competence. Being flexible to the customers needs: The insurer should make room to tailor the offerings to the specific requirement of the profitable customer. Furthermore, in the life insurance industry, multiple insurers offer similar products but the ones that offer flexibility are the ones that are able to hold their market position as well as attract the competitors customers. In North America and Europe, customers have identified various aspects of flexibility from their insurance providers. These aspects are covered in Figure 7. As customers in the Asia Pacific region become more and more sophisticated for their life insurance needs they will require similar levels of flexibility (as noted above). Need for CVM in the Life Insurance Industry Based on the challenges faced by players in the global life insurance industry, we have identified the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats (SWOT) typical to the industry and the impact of such on the insurer as well as the customer. The objective of the exercise is three-fold: Firstly, identify the key strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats in the life insurance industry. Secondly, identify the impact of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats on the insurers and their customers. Thirdly, to justify how an insurer can implement strategies and solutions to mitigate the weaknesses and threats and capitalize on strengths and opportunities. STRENGTH KEY STRENGTHS IMPACT ON INSURER IMPACT ON CUSTOMER STRATEGY Consolidated customer and marketing databases. More accurate prediction of changing customer needs Faster turnaround time in resolving claims and disputes. Customer has products that meet insurance/investment needs. The systems and customer data should be shared across the organization to promote innovation in business solutions. Multiple products offerings Targeting and acquiring various customer segments Increases customer retention by cross selling and up selling Customers have multiple products to meet their changing needs and circumstances. Identify the most profitable customer segment and retain them by offering innovative products and quality service. Multiple distribution channels. Increased profitability. Multiple distribution channels have given access to a wider customer base. Customers obtain product knowledge from their preferred touch points. Increases brand perception and product knowledge. Target specific customer segments through cost effective and customer preferred distribution channels. Flexible payment options (ex. payment in installments, cash, cheques, and credit/debit cards). Increases revenue generation, customer acquisition, and retention. Customer values flexibility and convenience and remains loyal. Marketing strategy to showcase the differentiating factors not provided by competitors. WEAKNESS KEY WEAKNESSES IMPACT ON INSURER IMPACT ON CUSTOMER STRATEGY Important customer data resides in silos resulting in poorly defined customer segments. Customer information resides with different departments preventing a holistic view of the customer. Wrong products sold to the wrong customers resulting in customer dissatisfaction. Consolidate and analyze customer data residing in various systems to identify profitable customer segments likely to do repeat purchases. Lack of information sharing across departments marked with territoriality and fierce internal competition. Results in weak product orientation and ineffective cross selling and up selling opportunities. Results in defection to competitor as insurance needs are not satisfied. Develop a common repository of customer data to provide various departments with the ability to develop products and provide quick response to changing needs. Lack of trust and reliability on the insurer. Negative reputation leads to mass customer defection. Un-satisfied customers pass on the poor experience to prospective customers Promote social computing communities such as blogs, chat forums. Also provides value add information about the customer. Snail paced claims and dispute resolution. Higher costs and time to serve the customer as multiple follow ups are required. Increased customer frustration due to lengthy dispute resolution period. Implement analytical models to predict and quantify the likelihood of claims. Measure and reward employees on time taken to resolve customer disputes. Insurance contracts are loaded with complicated insurance jargon. Increases in cost per customer Customer dissatisfaction and defection Simplify insurance contracts Recruit knowledgeable agents to assist customers. Insurance agents are primarily commission driven and are not customer oriented. Results in tarnishing the insurers reputation. Customer perceives a negative image of the insurer when faced with agents that are solely motivated by profits. Remodel agent compensation to include commissions based on parameters such as repeat sales and customer satisfaction surveys. Make customer centric training programs mandatory for all agents. OPPORTUNITY KEY OPPORTUNITIES IMPACT ON INSURER IMPACT ON CUSTOMER STRATEGY Tie-ups with banks and other FIs will give access to a wider customer base. Lower cost of acquisition of new clients. Lower operational costs. Financial and protection needs are met by a single channel. Develop bancassurance agreements to target a banks customer base. Un-tapped markets such as HNWI and Takaful (Islamic insurance). Access to a wider client base resulting in increase in profitability. Positive brand building exercise.  · Ability to provide protection for themselves and family.  · Diversification of investment strategy for HNWI.  · Launch products to non-mass market segments.  · Organize brand awareness campaigns in locations that are frequented by such segments. Deregulation has opened new markets. Insurers have access to a wider customer base. Competitive premium to the customers. Market entry strategy for de-regulated countries. Since the 3rd quarter of 2009, new business premiums in Singapore have been consistently increasing[9]. Opportunity to re-acquire customers. Multiple product and service offerings at competitive prices. Acquire customers that defaulted during the financial crisis by providing coverage at the same premium or payment in installments. Increased competition from the Internet. High costs involved in changing and/or updating technology platforms. Customers have a clearer idea of product offering and higher bargaining power over insurers. Provide high quality service to convert a one-time online sale by cross selling and up selling. THREAT KEY THREATS IMPACT ON INSURER IMPACT ON CUSTOMER STRATEGY Deregulation of the insurance industry has increased competition from new entrants. Lower profit margins and increased customer acquisition and retention costs. Financial and protection needs are met by a single channel. Joint venture, merger or acquisition with/of a bank and other financial institutions. Increased competition from the Internet. High costs involved in changing and/or updating technology platforms. Customers have a clearer idea of product offering and higher bargaining power over insurers. Provide high quality service to convert a one-time online sale by cross selling and up selling. Develop a powerful and customer friendly web platform. Rising costs due to increase in fraudulent activities. Lower profit margin and increased operational cost. Customer dissatisfaction with high turnaround time for claim resolution. Implement CDI tools to reduce duplication of records and redundant customer data. New government regulations may result in lowering profit margins for the insurer. Inability to serve customer segments resulting in declining profit margins. Customer has limited option of products to choose from or has to pay higher premiums. Develop products that abide by government regulations but at the same time are able to meet customer needs. Implementing a CVM Framework for a Life Insurer Customer Value Management (CVM) provides a systematic methodology of modeling the value proposition relative to competition by putting process improvements into operation and communicating these improvements back to the customer in terms of better service and value add. From a life insurance organizations point of view, customer value management can be structured into the following three components[10]: Analysis Planning Continuous Improvement The three components interact with each other to drive the value proposition of the customer. The components align business operations with the value proposition and create specific action plans to help realize the customer value over a lifetime. CVM components can be further broken down in to a structured process as shown in Figure 8. This is done to deliver the specified objective of implementing a customer value management strategy for a life insurance company (insurer) The phases explained in Figure 8 are summarized in the below section. Analysis The Analysis Phase consists of analyzing data and formulating strategies using data mining techniques to improve the customer profitability. The key processes which are included in this phase are: Data Quality and Single Customer View[11]: To improve profitability from the customers, analysis of the customer data stored in various systems is performed. Thus life insurance companies need to integrate them to understand the customer trends and purchase patterns. Life-time Value Model: Once the data is integrated, it is used to calculate the life time value of existing customers using various available methods. Discounted Cash Flows (DCF) method is one such model. Key Drivers: Key value drivers for a life insurer are determined by analyzing the data from the single customer view and the life time value model. Identifying key drivers that affect the purchasing decisions of a customer and the method by which an organization delivers on those drivers forms an important part of the Analysis Phase. Segmentation: Based on the customer values generated by lifetime value model, the customer segments are segregated into current and future low to high value customers. Further these customers are also segmented based on demographics, customer behavior etc. to capitalize on the current and future trends in the life insurance industry Planning The Planning phase ensures that the information collected after analyzing the data is valid and relevant for improving the customer value. Strategies at product and market level are formulated and implemented in planning phase. The tasks associated with planning phase are: Planning at the Business and Product/Market Level: Campaign planning based on customer segment is associated with planning at product and market level to implement the overall strategy of the organization. Campaign planning may include marketing plans, product development, cross-selling or up-selling of products to existing customers. After the completion of campaign planning, campaigns actions are implemented with intend to improve the customer profitability. [12] Key performance indicators: Based on the overall strategy, key performance indicators are identified based on financials, marketing performance, customer satisfaction, customer retention. These indicators allow insurers to measure the outcome of various actions on a periodic basis. Continuous Improvement Continuous improvement phase includes updating of action plans and strategies to make it more efficient and effective to achieve the organizational objectives. Objectives of continuous improvement are achieved by: Continuous performance measurement: The performance indicators established in the planning phase should be reviewed on a periodic basis to avoid any deviations from the stated objectives of each business unit. Process Improvement: Based on the outputs generated from the actions plans and performance indicators implemented in the planning phase, associated processes and action plans are updated to make it more efficient in achieving the stated objectives. Each phase will be dealt separately and in more detail in the following sections of the report. Analysis The Analysis Phase consists of analyzing data to identify the key drivers which affect the value of a customer and segment customers to improve the profitability of the insurer. The analysis of data establishes a relationship and a trend between the internal information and the market value of customers. This phase includes an analysis of the following processes: Data Quality and Single Customer View Over the past decade, insurance companies have gradually started shifting their focus from policy sales, pricing, and claims to understand the needs of the customers and the possibility of repeat purchases of additional products from these customers. Insurance companies have now started servicing and understanding the customers needs from a holistic perspective and further the insurers efficiency to service their customers is dependent on the information provided by the customers on the use of specific products and services. The information solicited from customers is used by insurance companies in developing new and re-modeling old products, by call customer representatives in providing quality service, and by marketing departments in selling new products to segmented customers. To achieve the above, insurance companies have started stressing on the need for customer data integration (CDI). A typical data integration solution (Figure 9) should encompass the following subsystem in the life insurance organization. An insurer needs to integrate various components of an insurance policy management solution into one and use data mining techniques to recognize the current customer trends, purchase patterns and fraudulent activities. Customer data integration in the insurance industry creates growth in the companys top line by: Improving the design of insurance products and pricing; Increasing the success rate of marketing campaigns; and Improving the overall customer experience resulting in maximization of the customers life time value Similarly, customer data integration also makes a positive impact on the bottom line of a life insurance company by: Streamlining the service centers and leading to shorter call times, resulting in increased customer profitability; and Savings in several operational areas such as claims Figure 10 displays the benefits of customer data integration as it applied to the organization. To further elaborate on how insurers can leverage from customer data integration let us demonstrate its effect on the following areas of the company: Product and Service Offerings: A typical product development process at an insurer is described in Figure 11. The figure highlights the data required from various sub-systems for product development. Data integration reduces the time required for product development using improved analytics. In short the insurer can have the first mover advantage by reducing the product development lifecycle. Insurers also spend a significant amount of time in customizing enrolment materials, benefit summaries, and claim submission forms and reports for a major customer. These activities have a high cost as they require the services of sales, underwriting, compliance, and legal and can wipe out the entire cash flows and profit expectations of the insurer. Here, data integration plays a significant role in formally defining, marketing and tracking these services and developing them. Data integration allows the insurer to integrate information about its target customers and their use of high cost services and bundles these services with the product to improve the pricing model. This enables an insurer to recover its costs incurred in designing the product and services while providing high end customers with value added services at the same time. For example, Eurovida[15], a Portuguese life insurer and part of Grupo Banco Popular faced a challenge of providing its customers with the right products in the most cost effective ways while driving growth, profitability and shareholder value. It was only after they deployed an activity-based management system were they able to consolidate customer and product data thereby determining the profitability of products and the costs incurred in delivering the product and service to the target customers. Marketing and Sales: An immediate advantage of customer data integration in the life insurance industry is the ability to detect and consol

The Gas Exchange And Transport

The Gas Exchange And Transport The changes in pulmonary ventilation and blood flow are actually regulated by the central nervous system through the respiratory and cardiovascular areas located in the brain. According to Sir Joseph Barcroft in 1934, exercise actually forces both cardiovascular and respiratory system to perform at a higher level of function. [1] This helps us to understand better how both respiratory and cardiovascular systems interact with each other to perform well. Gas Exchange and Transport Gaseous exchange occurs in the alveoli of the human lungs. Air in the alveolus has a higher partial pressure of oxygen compared to the blood in the pulmonary artery. Therefore, oxygen diffuses into the blood at capillary by dissolving in the moisture on the alveolar surface. On the other hand, air in the alveolus has a lower partial pressure of carbon dioxide compared to the blood in capillaries. Hence, the carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood capillary to alveolus to be exhaled out. [2] There are several factors which affect the gaseous exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen between the blood capillaries and alveoli in the lungs. These factors are the surface area available for diffusion, the length of the diffusion pathway, and the hemoglobin concentration in the blood. At rest, not all the capillaries that surround the alveoli are open. During exercise, more alveoli and capillaries are opened which increase the surface area to allow a faster diffusion to occur. [1] During exercise, there is also movement of fluid from blood into the surrounding cells and tissues. This is termed hemoconcentration. This will increase the concentration of hemoglobin in blood by 5% to 10%. [1] The increase in body temperature that causes the person to sweat will reduce plasma volume. This will produce hemoconcentration as well. This is the reason why during exercise, gas transport per unit volume of blood flow increases. [1] Oxygen Dissociation Curve Respiratory system is responsible for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between our body and the environment. When inspiratory muscles contract, air rushes into the lungs due to the higher pressure of external environment. Air is forced out from the lungs to the environment during expiration when the pressure inside thoracic cavity becomes higher. [2] During exercises, active tissues such as skeletal muscles need more oxygen to generate ATP. [3] Therefore, they produce more carbon dioxide and the body temperature increase. This carbon dioxide will react with water in the tissue to form carbonic acid which increases acidity. Increase in the acidity of blood will reduce the affinity of hemoglobin to oxygen. As the result, more oxygen is released to these active tissues. [2] For example, during moderate exercises, skeletal muscles need more oxygen and they produce more carbon dioxide due to the work out. So, the pH is decreased causing the affinity of hemoglobin to oxygen reduce. Hemoglobin with a lower affinity to oxygen has oxygen dissociation curve which is further to the right. Body temperature which increases during exercise will cause the shifting of oxygen dissociation curve to the right as well. [5] According to Merle L. Foss and Steven J. Keteyian in their book, Physiological Basis for Exercise and Sport, the respiratory system change the rate and depth of ventilation to help regulate the hydrogen ion concentration of our body fluid. When body fluid pH decreases, for example, during exercises, ventilation increases to blow off carbon dioxide. When at rest, ventilation decreases to retain carbon dioxide in body fluid. [1] Ventilation changes during exercise Involuntary control of breathing is carried out by the breathing center in the medulla oblongata. [2] This breathing center consists of an inspiratory center and expiratory center. The partial pressure of carbon dioxide which also affects the pH of blood is the most important factor controlling the rate and depth of breathing. The chemoreceptors detect the changes in partial pressure of carbon dioxide of blood and cerebral spinal fluid. These chemoreceptors are the carotid bodies, the aortic bodies, and the medulla [1] that near the breathing center. During moderate exercises, there is a rapid increase in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood. This is due to the accumulation of lactic acid in muscles. The increase in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide stimulates the chemoreceptors to transmit impulses to the inspiratory center. Inspiratory center transmits impulses to diaphragm muscles and intercostal muscle for rate and depth breathing. [3] At the first few second after start the exercise, there is a rapid increase in the ventilation. This is due to the increase in the central command from cortex. The increase in the neural stimuli to medulla because of the activation of muscle or joint receptors may cause the hyperventilation as well. After that, the rapid ventilation start to achieve at steady state or it shows a slower rise. This is because chemoreceptors start to react to increase in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide and decrease in the pH of blood or cerebral spinal fluid. The ventilation continues to increase until the exercise is stop. [1] During normal breathing, a human adult inhales and exhales about 450cm ³ of air. This is known as tidal volume. During vigorous activity, tidal volume can increase up to 2000cm ³. [2] Oxygen uptake increases linearly as the work rate is increasing. However, above a certain work rate the oxygen uptake reaches a plateau. Thats mean there is a limiting factor to oxygen up take. [3] Structure of Human Heart Human heart consists of 4 chambers, left atrium, right atrium, left ventricle and right ventricle. Both the left and right ventricles have thicker muscular wall compare to left and right atria wall because ventricles need to contract strongly to pump blood out of the heart. Whereas, the wall of left ventricle is 3 to 4 times thicker to right ventricle because left ventricle need to pump blood to all parts of our body except lungs while right ventricle pump blood to lungs only. The intraventricular septum separate left and right side of the heart completely. Left atrium receives oxygenated blood from lungs via pulmonary vein while right atrium received deoxygenated blood from the body through vena cava. [7] [6] Control of Heart Beat Heartbeat is myogenic. This is because beating of the heart is started by cardiac muscles and not by external stimulation. Sino atrial node (SAN) which is also known as the pacemaker for the heart is responsible to originate excitation for starting the heartbeat. SAN have a high permeability to sodium ions. So, SAN cells are depolarized as sodium ions diffuse into these cells continuously. The depolarization will generate electrical impulse that transmitted out from SAN cells to produce contraction of heart. Atrial systole occurs when the wave of excitation is conducted from SAN to walls of both atria. The impulses that generate by SAN is then activates atrioventricular node (AVN). AVN then transmits the impulses to apex of the ventricles via bundle of his. From the apex, impulses are transmitted to ventricular muscles through purkinje fibers. This transmission causes ventricles to contract and hence pump blood into pulmonary artery and aorta. [2] SAN can be accelerated or slowed down by the autonomic nerve system, endocrine system and some other factors. The amount of blood return to heart actually can induce the increase in the stroke volume and cardiac output of the heart. During exercise, the working skeletal muscles contract strongly and quickly. As a result, a large amount of blood is return to the heart via vena cava. There is stretch receptors (baroreceptors) located within the wall of the vena cava. When large amount of blood return to the heart, the vena cava dilates and this stretches its wall, stimulated the stretch receptors there. The stretch receptors then generate impulses at high frequency to transmit to cardiac accelerator center in the medulla oblongata. The stimulated accelerator center then transmits impulses via the sympathetic nerves to induce a faster and stronger heartbeat. [1] According to Starling Law, the strength of the heartbeat is related to how much the cardiac muscles are stretched. Therefore, the more the volume of blood returned to the heart, the stronger the ventricle contracts. [4] Stroke volume increases due to the strong ventricular contraction, thus there is high blood pressure in carotid artery and aorta. Stretch receptors are stimulated and transmit impulses to cardiac inhibitory center to slow down heartbeat. This is to prevent the heart from beating too fast. [2] Distribution of Blood Flow At rest, majority of the cardiac output is distributed to the visceral organ, the heart and the brain. Only 20% of the total systemic flow is distributed to the muscles. [1] However, during exercise, more active skeletal muscles received a higher proportion of the cardiac output due to the redistribution of the blood flow. The metabolic active skeletal muscles will receive 85 to 90% of the total blood flow during maximal exercise. [1] The redistribution of the blood flow is caused by the vasoconstriction of the arterioles at visceral organs and non-working skeletal muscles which are less active metabolically during the progress of exercise. The vasodilation of the arterioles which supply blood to the active skeletal muscles is also the reason that causing the redistribution of the blood flow. [1] The vasoconstriction of the arterioles at non-active tissues in our body during exercises is due to the increase in both neural input and release of noradrenaline to the blood. On the other hand, the vasodilation of arterioles at active skeletal muscles during exercise is mainly due to initial reflex sympathetic nervous system response and chemical changes in the body. Those chemical changes include increase in temperature, partial pressure of carbon dioxide, hydrogen ions in plasma and blood, lactic acid level and decrease in the partial pressure of oxygen. The innermost layer of the arterial blood vessel will also release a vasodilation substance which is nitrous oxide to induce vasodilation of arterioles. [1] Blood Pressure Regulation Blood pressure is regulated by coordinating cardiac output and the diameter of the arteries. As cardiac output increases, blood pressure increases as well. Arterioles vasodilation lowers the blood pressure while arterioles vasoconstriction raises the blood pressure. The neurons from the vasomotor center in the medulla innervate the smooth muscles in all arterioles. [2] During exercises, there is increase in the cardiac output which raises blood pressure and stimulating the stretch receptors in the aortic arch and carotid sinuses. The stretch receptors then transmit impulses to the vasomotor center in the medulla. The vasomotor center then responds by causes the arterioles to vasodilate to decrease the blood pressure. It may cause the cardiac output to decrease also. [2] Blood pressure also affects by the partial pressure of carbon dioxide. During exercise, the increase in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide will stimulate the chemoreceptors located in the carotid bodies. The chemoreceptors then transmit the impulses to the vasomotor center in medulla that causes the arterioles to vasoconstrict. This can facilitate the carbon dioxide excretion as more blood can be transported to the lungs. [2] Conclusion After go through all the topics that we discussed above, we can conclude that all the adjustments make by respiratory and cardiovascular systems (cardiopulmonary) need to be controlled, coordinated and interact with one another well to operate at a higher level of function. Cardiopulmonary system is able to function efficiently because of the control of nervous system which involves both voluntary nervous system and involuntary nervous system. As both cardiovascular and respiratory systems are interconnected with each other, therefore, the stimulation of one area such as the increase in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide will affect both ventilation and blood flow. As a result, to study physiological changes during moderate exercise, we need to study both cardiovascular and respiratory systems to understand better how they work.

Split Cherry Tree by Jesse Stuart Essay -- Split Cherry Tree Jesse Stu

Split Cherry Tree by Jesse Stuart The short story, Spilt Cherry Tree, was written by Jesse Stuart. In the beginning of the story, Dave and his classmates went with Professor Herbert on a field trip for biology class. They were all searching for lizards, bugs, snakes, frogs, flowers, and plants. Dave and five of his classmates had spotted a lizard in the old cherry tree up the hill, so all six of them ran up the tree after it, and the tree broke down. Eif Crabtree, the owner of the tree was plowing when it happened and he ran up and go tall the boys’ names. Dave’s five classmates who broke the tree with him were all able to get the dollar that they owed Mr. Crabtree, but Dave knew he wouldn’t be able to get his. Professor Herbert kept Dave after school and told him that he paid Dave’s dollar, but he would have to work four hours at the school to earn the full dollar, which means he would be getting paid twenty-five cents and hour to help the janitor. Dave really didn’t mind staying after school, but he knew that he would get a whipping from his father if he was two hours late getting home. Dave told Professor Herbert that he would rather have the professor whip him with a switch so he could go on home and help his dad with chores because he knew his dad would whip him if he was two hours late. Dave was also afraid that his father would make him quit school because he was a little old fashioned and didn’t understand the school system of that time.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Dave hurried hom... Split Cherry Tree by Jesse Stuart Essay -- Split Cherry Tree Jesse Stu Split Cherry Tree by Jesse Stuart The short story, Spilt Cherry Tree, was written by Jesse Stuart. In the beginning of the story, Dave and his classmates went with Professor Herbert on a field trip for biology class. They were all searching for lizards, bugs, snakes, frogs, flowers, and plants. Dave and five of his classmates had spotted a lizard in the old cherry tree up the hill, so all six of them ran up the tree after it, and the tree broke down. Eif Crabtree, the owner of the tree was plowing when it happened and he ran up and go tall the boys’ names. Dave’s five classmates who broke the tree with him were all able to get the dollar that they owed Mr. Crabtree, but Dave knew he wouldn’t be able to get his. Professor Herbert kept Dave after school and told him that he paid Dave’s dollar, but he would have to work four hours at the school to earn the full dollar, which means he would be getting paid twenty-five cents and hour to help the janitor. Dave really didn’t mind staying after school, but he knew that he would get a whipping from his father if he was two hours late getting home. Dave told Professor Herbert that he would rather have the professor whip him with a switch so he could go on home and help his dad with chores because he knew his dad would whip him if he was two hours late. Dave was also afraid that his father would make him quit school because he was a little old fashioned and didn’t understand the school system of that time.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Dave hurried hom...

Kidney Thieves Urban Legend :: Urban Legends

Losing Organs at a Party: The "Kidney Thieves" Legend and the Immigrant Experience My family, most being first generation immigrants, has at times a slightly negative view of American culture. Because of this, many of the family dinner conversations are about the differences between American and Iranian cultures and often how the Iranian culture is better in some ways. To support this theory many urban legends are brought up that show the â€Å"dark side† of the American culture. For example, when the family was gathered together for the Iranian new year, a version of the famous legend about the traveler who was drugged and robbed of his organs in a hotel room was told by a family member. It is important to note that he told the story in Farsi, which means that I am translating and not merely re-telling the story verbatim. The storyteller's version of the story was about an Iranian foreign exchange student who had recently come to the US. The story begins with the student, being alone in this country, going to a party he had heard of from other students. In the party, having had a few drinks, another â€Å"American thing† my family is against, he met a beautiful innocent girl who offered him a drink and asked to go to his place at the end of the night. The tone with which he described the girl was specially interesting, noting that even the innocent looking girls cannot be trusted. The story goes that the Iranian student did not remember anything from that point on until he woke up the next day in his bathtub covered with ice. There was also a note next to him telling him not to move and call 911. When the ambulance arrived at his apartment he was told that his kidney was removed and that he was not the first person this has happened to. To add to the accuracy and suspense of the story, the stor yteller, a physician, mentioned how the ice was used to keep the student’s body cold to prevent excessive blood loss and inflammation, which was essentially what kept him alive. After being discharged from the hospital for a few weeks with a missing kidney, a big hospital bill, and having fallen behind his studies, the student found out that there is an organized ring of organ thieves who specialize in lonely foreign students, who are as the storyteller sees it, more susceptible to being seduced by girls.

Employee Handbook Privacy Section Essay

According to Connelly, Roberts, and McGivney, LLC (1998), â€Å"in today’s workplace computers and electronic communications are the norm rather than the exception† (p. 1). With technology, rapidly advancing electronic communication is becoming essential. This creates a challenge for organizations on how and what to monitor when it comes to its employees. This paper will address the issue of privacy in the global workplace and give suggestions on what privacy rights issues should be addressed, as well as what the company’s position should be in response to its privacy rights. Lastly, it will define how organizations privacy protections may limit the company’s liability and how privacy protections enhance employee motivation and productivity. Privacy Rights to be Addressed The majority of employees expect to have a certain amount of privacy in the workplace. Nevertheless, there are times where the employer may have a justifiable reason to monitor or investigate the employee’s within its organization. The following provides some business practices that may be imposed to assure the honesty of the organization and the employees within the organization. One privacy right that should be addressed is drug testing. Drug testing helps to ensure the safety of the workplace. According to Jankanish and Husbands (1993), â€Å"drug and alcohol testing programs should fit within existing arrangements for ensuring the quality of work life, employee rights, the safety, and security of the worksite, and employer rights and responsibilities (e.g. protection of the public interest)† (p. 105). The testing should ensure the worker’s rights and confidentiality of the results. Another issue to be addressed is background checks on potential new hires. The Fair Credit Reporting Act (FCRA) has set guidelines and standards for organizations to follow when implementing a background check. According to Alison Doyle (nd), â€Å"the FCRA defines a background check as a consumer report. Before an employer can get a consumer report for employment purposes, they must notify you in writing and get your written authorization† (p. 1). Even if an employer is just running a basic check for inquiry purposes they must still get permission from the employee. The purpose of the background check is to ensure that information that was provided from the applicant is truthful, and some organizations require certain security clearances, or the individual may be applying for a position that works closely with children. The employer still needs to have permission from the applicant in ord er to run these background checks. Lastly, the employer needs to protect the privacy of employee personal information. According to Brian Koerner (nd), â€Å"twenty five percent of all identity thieves are known by the victim – whether it be a friend, relative, or co-worker† (p. 1). Employers need to take steps to keep personal information such as social security numbers, home addresses, and phone numbers safe. This information if obtained by the wrong person could lead to identity theft. Employers need to ensure that the appropriate steps are taken to keep employee information confidential. This can be done by utilizing an employee number rather than the employee’s social security number, make sure that personal information is not posted where it is easily accessible, only allowing acceptable personnel to handle confidential information, and dispose of information and documentation appropriately (about.com). Limiting Liability It is important that companies understand the different potential corporate and personal liability when preparing, planning, implementing or maintaining a n employee privacy handbook section. Companies must remain aware of potential issues that may need to be addressed in order to remain proactive and avoid liability pitfalls. There are many areas of potential liability an organization that includes negligence, liability under the privacy act, loss, or misuse of personal records, and criminal liability. In order to provide an organization with the most liability protection, they must be aware of what these liabilities are. Negligence is the failure to provide reasonable care, which result in damages to another person or company. If a company or organization does not take reasonable care to provide adequate protection for their employees or customers’ information and the employee or customer suffers damages, the organization may be legally responsible for the amount of loss suffered. In order to avoid negligence, organizations must be proactive and provide adequate security. The Privacy Act was created to ensure that companies are obligated to provide protection in ways that they retain, collect, use, and disclose personal information (Bushkin, p. 1). Companies covered by the Privacy Act are required to protect private and personal information they hold. Companies must avoid misuse and loss as well as unauthorized access. Whether it is physical protection or electronic protection, companies must provide a reasonable level of security. Companies who act negligent and cause excessive damages to individuals or customers may face criminal liability. Companies must act appropriately when dealing with private or personal information. Intentional misuse of personal or private information may result in criminal proceedings. Companies must take reasonable measure to ensure that the security systems in place adequately protect their employees and customer’s information. It is unlikely that an organization will be held responsible for information lost due to security attacks provided that they have acted reasonably in their attempts to protect the information (Givens, p. 1). Companies can face significant damages and a direct loss in business as well as liability to third parties if they do not proved the necessary security measures. By designing, developing and implementing a strong security policy as well as educating employees on how to handle private and personal information, companies can protect themselves and t heir employees from potential liabilities. It may be necessary for companies to audit their employees to ensure that information is not being misused. Addressing the laws required in the employee handbook regarding privacy will consist of the Privacy Impact Assessment (PIA). A PIA is an analysis of how information is handled: (1) to ensure handling conforms to applicable legal, regulatory, in addition, policy requirements regarding privacy, (2) to determine the risks and effects of collecting, maintaining, and disseminating information in identifiable form in an electronic information system, and (3) to examine and evaluate protections and alternative processes for handling information to mitigate potential privacy risks (September 26, 2003). When addressing the laws regarding privacy in the employee handbook the following processes will occur. Whenever any agency makes a determination under this section not to amend an individual’s record in accordance with his or her request, or fails to make such review in conformity; or fails to maintain any record concerning any individual with such accuracy, relevance, timeliness, and completeness as is necessary to assure fairness in any determination relating to the qualifications, character, rights, or opportunities of or benefits to the individual that may be made on the basis of such record, and consequently a determination is made which is adverse to the individual; or fails to comply with any other provision of this section, or any rule promulgated there under, in such a way as to have an adverse effect on an individual, the individual may bring a civil action against the agency, and the district courts of the United States shall have jurisdiction in the matters under the provisions of this section (September 26, 2003). The court may order the agency to amend the individual’s record in accordance with his request or in such other way as the court may direct. In such a case the court shall determine the matter de novo. The court may assess against the United States reasonable attorney fees and other litigation costs reasonably incurred in any case under this paragraph in which the complainant has substantially prevailed (September 26, 2003). The court may enjoin the agency from withholding the records and order the production to the complainant of any agency records improperly withheld from him (September 26, 2003.) In such a case the court shall determine the matter de novo, and may examine the contents of any agency records in camera to determine whether the records or any portion thereof may be withheld under any of the exemptions set forth in this section and the burden are on the agency to sustain its action (September 26, 2003). The court may assess against the United States reasonable a ttorney fees and other litigation costs reasonably incurred in any case under this paragraph in which the complainant has substantially prevailed (September 26, 2003). In any suit brought under the provisions of this section in which the court determines that the agency acted in a manner, which was intentional or willful, the United States shall be liable to the individual in an amount equal to the sum of actual damages sustained by the individual as a result of the refusal or failure, but in no case shall a person entitled to recovery receive less than the sum of $1,000; and the costs of the action together with reasonable attorney fees as determined by the court (September 26, 2003). An individual’s name and address may not be sold or rented by an agency unless such action is specifically authorized by law (September 26, 203). This provision shall not be construed to require the withholding of names and addresses otherwise permitted to be made public. Matching agreements, no record, which is contained in a system of records, may be disclosed to a recipient agency or non-Federal agency for use in a computer-matching program except pursuant to a written agreement between the sources agency and the recipient agency or non-Federal agency specifying (September 26, 2003). Having this section in the privacy handbook takes some ethical considerations because providing key rules and regulations in protecting someone’s personal information is extremely important. Due to the amount of technology in this day of age moreover, the amount of identity theft it is crucial to protect personal information. Having trust and security is an ethical consideration for the fact that someone will feel protected by the laws and the company. Corporations are faced with challenges everyday on how to protect their employees. By implementing and using the employee handbook privacy, section this will help to keep these companies records safe and secure for the employees. Technology has made it too easy for hackers to access information so by regulating how the information is kept will help to ensure the safety of the employee’s information. What this paper covered is the issue of privacy in the global workplace and gave suggestions on what privacy rights issues should be addressed, as well as what the company’s position should be in response to its privacy rights. Lastly, it defined how organizations privacy protections may limit the company’s liability and how privacy protections enhance employee motivation and productivity. With all of these guidelines in place the employees will have a better sense of security in the workplace. References Bushkin, Aruthur A. The Privacy Act of 1974 A Reference Manual for Compliance. Retrieved October 30, 2006 from http://www.cavebear.com/nsf-dns/pa_history.htm Connelly, Roberts, and McGivney, LLC. (1998). Privacy Issues in a High-Tech Workplace. Retrieved October 29, 2006 from http://library.findlaw.com/1998/Mar/1/130358.html Doyle, A. (nd). Background Check: Employment. Retrieved October 29, 2006 from http://jobsearch.about.com/cs/backgroundcheck/a/background.htm Givens, Beth. Legislative Hearing, Privacy Rights. Retrieved October 30, 2006 from http://www.privacyrights.org/ar/outsourcing-privacy.htm Jankanish, M. & Husbands, R. (1993). Worker’s Privacy. Retrieved October 29, 2006 from http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN9221087468&id=eisbpZMK4qkC &pg=PA105&lpg=PA105&dq=what+privacy+rights+issues+should+be+addressed&sig=zL07cCOHNB7lOgu2Z9RwX8sBASg Koerner, B. (nd). Is Your Employer Protecting Your Personally Identifiable Information? Retrieved October 29, 2006 from http://idt heft.about.com/od/workplaceidentitytheft/p/workplacePII.htm The Privacy Act of 1974. 5 U.S.C.  § 552a  § 552a. Records maintained on individuals as Amended, Updated page September 26, 2003. Retrieved on October 30, 2006 from http://www.usdoj.gov/oip/privstat.htm

People of the Philippines vs Andre Marti

People vs. Marti 193 SCRA 57 Facts : Andre Marti and his wife went to Manila Packing and Export Forwarders, carrying with them four gift wrapped packages to be delivered to his friend in Zurich, Switzerland. Anita Reyes (wife of the proprietor) asked if she could inspect the packages, however, Marti refused assuring that it only contained books, cigars and gloves as gift to his friend. Before delivery to Bureau of Customs/Posts, the proprietor Job Reyes, following standard operating procedure, opened the boxes for final inspection.When he opened Marti's boxes, a particular odor emitted therefrom and he soon found out that the boxes contained dried marijuana leaves. He reported the incident to the NBI who acknowledged custody of the incident. Marti was convicted for violation of R. A. 6425, otherwise known as the Dangerous Drugs Act. Constitutional Issues : 1. Marti contends that the evidence had been obtained in violation of his constitutional rights against unreasonable seach and si ezure and privacy of communication.Ruling : 1. Evidence sought to be excluded was primarily discovered and obtained by a private person, acting in a private capacity and without the intervention and participation of State authorities. In the absence of governmental interference, the libertied guaranteed by the Constitution cannot be invoked against the State. 2. Mere presence of NBI agents does not convert it to warrantless search and siezure. Merely to look at that which is plain sight is not search.Having observed that which is open, where no trespass has been committed is not search. Commissioner Bernas : The protection of fundamental liberties in the essence of constitutional democracy†¦ is a protection against the State. The Bill of Rights governs the relationship between the individual and the State. Its concern is not the relation between individuals, between a private individual and other individuals. What the Bill of Rights does is to declare some forbidden zones in th e private sphere inaccessible to any power holder.

European Collective Identity

European Journal of Social Theory http://est. sagepub. com/ A Theory of Collective Identity Making Sense of the Debate on a ‘European Identity' Klaus Eder European Journal of Social Theory 2009 12: 427 DOI: 10. 1177/1368431009345050 The online version of this article can be found at: http://est. sagepub. com/content/12/4/427 Published by: http://www. sagepublications. com Additional services and information for European Journal of Social Theory can be found at: Email Alerts: http://est. sagepub. com/cgi/alertsSubscriptions: http://est. sagepub. com/subscriptions Reprints: http://www. sagepub. com/journalsReprints. nav Permissions: http://www. sagepub. com/journalsPermissions. nav Citations: http://est. sagepub. com/content/12/4/427. refs. html >> Version of Record – Nov 10, 2009 What is This? Downloaded from est. sagepub. com at Sage Publications (UK) on April 26, 2012 European Journal of Social Theory 12(4): 427–447 Copyright  © 2009 Sage Publications: Los Ange les, London, New Delhi, Singapore and Washington DCA Theory of Collective Identity Making Sense of the Debate on a ‘European Identity’ Klaus Eder H U M B O L D T U N I V E R S I T Y, B E R L I N Abstract This article argues for a robust notion of collective identity which is not reduced to a psychological conception of identity. In the ? rst part, the debate on the concept of identity raised by several authors is taken up critically with the intention of defending a strong sociological conception of identity which by de? nition is a collective identity.The basic assumption is that collective identities are narrative constructions which permit the control of the boundaries of a network of actors. This theory is then applied to the case of Europe, showing how identity markers are used to control the boundaries of a common space of communication. These markers are bound to stories which those within such a space of communication share. Stories that hold in their narrative structures social relations provide projects of control. National identities are based on strong and exclusive stories.Europeanization (among other parallel processes at the global level) opens this space of boundary constructions and offers opportunities for national as well as subnational as well as transnational stories competing with each other to shape European identity projects. The EU – this is the hypothesis – provides a case in which different sites offer competing opportunities to continue old stories, to start new stories or to import old stories from other sites, thus creating a narrative network on top of the network of social relations that bind the people in Europe together.European identity is therefore to be conceived as a narrative network embedded in an emerging network of social relations among the people living in Europe. Key words  ¦ collective identity  ¦ European identity  ¦ narrative analysis  ¦ network analysis  ¦ sociological theory www. sagepublications. com DOI: 10. 1177/1368431009345050 Downloaded from est. sagepub. com at Sage Publications (UK) on April 26, 2012 428 European Journal of Social Theory 12(4) Identity: A Contested Concept Collective identity has been at the centre of attention in societies that were formed in the course of the making of the nation-state.The nation, however, has not been an exclusive focus. Collective identity can equally refer to cities, to regions, or to groups such as political parties or even social movements. For some time, collective identity has also been an issue with regard to Europe where public debate is increasingly concerned with the problem of a European identity that is seen as lacking or as necessary. But why do societies, groups and even a union of nationstates such as the EU need an identity? For a person, an identity allows them to be recognized as something particular vis-a-vis others.But why do groups, up to the nation and even transnational phenomena such as the EU, need an identity? The argument in the following is that the distinction between the identity of persons and the identity of groups and societies is an empirical one. Persons and societies are cases of identities. Persons have an identity by positioning themselves relative to other persons and by giving to these relations a meaning that is ? xed in time. An identity guarantees being a person in the ? ux of time.The same holds for groups: a group has an identity if it succeeds in de? ning itself vis-a-vis other groups by attributing meaning to itself that is stable over time. Identity as an analytical concept covers all these cases: identity emerges by linking past social relations with those in the present. In some cases, even future social relations are included; in this case, identity is linked to ideas of salvation or fate that include future social relations in our present existence. All these ‘constructions’ emerge within a speci? type of social relations in the present and allow an interruption of the permanent change of social relations, thus creating an identity in which persons, groups or societies can see themselves and be seen by others as being ‘identical’ over time. Everyday common sense in our society uses the concept of identity in a different way; it sees identity is something that a person or a group has. Contrary to this common sense, sociological sense sees the person or the group as a special case of identity that has emerged in a highly particular type of social relations: persons are transformed into individuals in social relations which are de? ed as relations between ‘free and equal people’. This is the modernist form of social relations of transforming persons into something that has an identity, i. e. individuals. This modernist form of social relations also transforms groups into something that has a collective identity, i. e. into nations. In the historical move from subjects to indiv iduals and from kingdoms to nations, we can observe a shift in the construction of identity. Identity is reconstructed since it refers to a different type of social relations.In such social relations, identity becomes a particular preoccupation of ‘individuals’ or ‘nations’, as the permanent work on identity repair and identity con? rmation shows. As an analytical concept, identity denotes something that holds across all these cases, providing stable meaning in the ? ux of social relations. Since identity in this sociological usage refers to social relations, any kind of identity is by de? nition social. Individuals and nations in the society we live in constitute the two Downloaded from est. sagepub. com at Sage Publications (UK) on April 26, 2012Eder A Theory of Collective Identity poles of identity constructions. 1 In-between, we have a series of social forms such as couples, families, associations, classes, regions, or ethnic groups which can be seen as intermediate cases of identity. The two poles of identity constructions are not ? xed, since changing social relations might produce forms of identity beyond the nation, an issue that is at the core of the debate of European identity and that makes this debate theoretically important. 2 In the following, a theoretically robust notion of collective identity will e presented. This task is carried out in the next section in a critique of the critical statements on the concept of collective identity that have arisen in the past decade. It consists of recuperating it from the fragments of the deconstruction of this concept in recent theorizing. The constructive argument in this recuperation effort is based on two assumptions. The ? rst is that that processes of identity construction vary with the complexity of social relations. The second assumption is that processes of identity construction have a ‘narrative structure’.These two theoretical moves then help to reassess the ongoing debate on the identity of Europeans or of a ‘European identity’ which preoccupies elites, sometimes people and which keeps active a rather signi? cant part of the public debate and increasingly scienti? c debate on ‘Europe’. In an oft-cited paper, Brubaker and Cooper (Brubaker and Cooper, 2000) made a strong attack on the concept of identity in the social sciences following this lead. They make three strong arguments. Their ? rst criticism has been that reputed authors using the term do not really need it. They use identity only as the marker of an intention (to be culturally sensitive). Identity is not related to the social analysis that has been presented elsewhere in their work. A second criticism of Brubaker and Cooper is that the notion of collective identity necessarily implies some notion of primordialism. Assuming that collective identity denotes something beyond shared values or norms, then there must be something more substantial than this to justify its use. The constructivist position starting with a non-essentialist position ends up in essentialist notions of collective identity.Constructivism produces outcomes that contradict its basic premises of ? uidity and multiplicity. A third criticism is that we already assume a groupist social ontology which forecloses the analytical grip of the diversity of patterns of non-groupist social forms; we exclude by de? nition the possibility of non-groupist social life, the possibility of living social relations without claiming an identity. Yet the solutions which Brubaker and Cooper offer do not resolve the problems addressed by them. The ? rst argument forces us to specify the added value of using the notion of collective identity as an analytical category.This is an obvious postulate. Categorical ornamenting or fashionable category-dropping should be avoided. We should either propose a strict sociological notion or leave the concept to psychologists who interpret identity as a phenomenon of the human mind. My proposal is that we can make a strong sociological concept out of it as long as we do not confuse it with psychological notions. The second argument that some substantialism is implicit in constructivist accounts of collective identity implies that substantialism is in some sense ‘bad’. Downloaded from est. sagepub. om at Sage Publications (UK) on April 26, 2012 429 430 European Journal of Social Theory 12(4) The implicit answer of Brubaker et al. is that we should assume a world in which the social no longer needs an overarching naturalizing symbolism. However, there are social situations in which primordialism does pop up. Thus, the theoretical answer should be to identify situations in which constructions of collective identity vary between primordialism and arti? cialism. The third argument against the ‘groupist ontology’ raises the issue of the mechanism through which social actors relate to each other.Collective i dentities are, the argument says, ‘groupist ontologies’ which in fact they are. They are symbolic forms through which a world of social relations is mirrored. These ontologies exist and have a structure and are the result of social processes that can be reconstructed. Doing away with such ‘ontologies’ is missing the object of a theory of collective identities. Groupist ontologies become the more important, the more social interaction is mediated by cultural techniques that establish sociality without the presence of the other.Such forms of indirect sociality need a social rationalization that invokes the social. Therefore, we have to assume that there is something that they have in common beyond the co-presence of the others. The theoretical assumption that follows is that the idea of collective identity emerges when cultural techniques (such as bureaucratic formula, written texts, computer interfaces) serve as interrupts of social interaction and generate indirect social interaction. To act beyond natural bonds, i. e. through cultural techniques, means to generate an abstraction of social experience.The argument then is that there is an increasing need for such collective identities in complex societies when indirect social relations increase in number. To forestall the macro-theoretical argument: The more a human society is differentiated, the more it needs a collective identity. The central hypothesis that derives from this assumption is that collective identities vary with the structure of the system of indirect social relations. The theory does not assume that collective identity is unitary, coherent. This is only one way of organizing the social bond among people.Collective identity can also be fuzzy, multiple. It is the variation of identities which requires explanation. The theory proposed explains this variation as being contingent on the structure of social relations among people. In other words, the network structure linkin g a people shapes the construction of the identity of that network which then is used to reproduce this network structure. 4 Thus, collective identity constructions are a central building block of social relations. Therefore, we should not give up the concept of collective identity, but make better use of it.Collective Identity Construction as Projects of Control: Adding Narrative Structure to Evolutionary Process The functionalist argument implicit in evolutionary theory tells us that it is necessary to create bonds which oblige people to pay taxes, to send their kids to schools, or to die for their country. On a more abstract level, it says that I accept that things are done to me by others which I accept only by those with whom I Downloaded from est. sagepub. com at Sage Publications (UK) on April 26, 2012 Eder A Theory of Collective Identity have a special social relation, a sense of some community.This common factor obliges people to accept the social norms imposed upon them. 5 The argument that collective identities are collective rationalizations of social relations points to the trans-psychological character of collective identities. The link between identity and reality is to be constructed independent of psychological assumptions about human needs or motivations for collective identity. The psychological grounding may even turn out to be a variable that varies with the form of collective identities. This happens when groups turn toward outside references for a collective identity.As Pierre Nora argues: ‘Moins la memoire est vecu de l’interieur, plus elle a besoin de supports exterieurs et de reperes tangibles d’une existence qui ne vit plus qu’a travers eux’ (Nora, 1984: xxv). Collective identities are social constructions which use psychological needs and motives to provide an answer to the questions ‘who do I belong to? ’ or ‘who do we belong to? ’ Collective identities make use of such ps ychic references in speci? c social constellations. This happens regularly in social relations bound to concrete social interaction.It also happens in social relations that transgress the realm of social interaction such as constructions of national identity and produce situations of ‘effervescence collective’, as Durkheim described it. The more indirect social relations are, the more important become social carriers such as texts or songs or buildings which store collective identities. To the extent that collective identities are linked primarily to individuals in concrete interaction situations, emotional ties such as the sense of pride and shame become important mechanisms for reproducing collective identities.To the extent that collective identities are linked to objects as their carriers, these objects become carriers of generalized emotions that are built into the object, into images or texts. Such generalized emotions are embodied in what can be called ‘nar ratives’. This argument thus takes seriously the emotional aspect of identity constructions. There is something in the social relations that goes beyond the sense of shared interests and reciprocal solidarity. But this does not imply a return to a psychological notion of a sense of identity or of identi? cation. It rather leads us to think social relations in terms of hared meanings, i. e. narratives that people share ‘emphatically’ with each other. This sense of narrative sharing has to do with the sense of being part of a particular ‘we’. This can be called the ‘narrative bond’ that emerges in some social relations (but not in all of our social relations). Thus, a collective identity is a metaphor for a speci? c type of social relations that are embedded in the last instance in a narrative network that is as dynamic as the stories are that are produced and reproduced in ongoing social communication mediated by these social relations (E der, 2007). Collective identities are analyzed as narrative networks that emerge in evolutionary processes; the path of development of such networks is prescribed by the structure of the narratives at play. The proposed theory argues that in complex societies, strong collective identities will emerge and that the narratives people share to live in this complex world will remain the basic building blocks of identities. The difference from the traditional world is that everybody lives through and with an increasing number of narratives that mediate social relations. ThisDownloaded from est. sagepub. com at Sage Publications (UK) on April 26, 2012 431 432 European Journal of Social Theory 12(4) also increases the contingency of the developmental path prescribed by narrative networks. National identity constructions are the last instance of a collective identity with a clear path prescription, the making of nation-states. National identities do what collective identities do in general: they are stories that combine a series of events in texts, songs and images which some people recognize as being part of their particular we, i. . as a collective identity. In addition, national identity constructions have succeeded in imposing themselves as a hegemonic identity in a territorially bounded political community. This exclusiveness is built into a story which links people de? ned as citizens of a political community. This story is transmitted to and learned by new generations, practised in national rituals and objecti? ed in songs (anthems) and images (? ags). Counter-stories exist in those political communities in which two hegemonic stories compete (such as Belgium or Canada).Yet even in these cases, the two stories are often aligned in one national story, told in different languages. This national solution is increasingly contested. Narratives appear which tell different stories about who we are. The problem is the co-existence of many hegemonic stories. This creates not only a practical problem but also a theoretical problem: How to conceive the narrative network underlying a political community in a situation where we have many narratives ? oating around and referring to it? The case in point is Europe. 7 Making Sense of a ‘European identity’From Identi? cation with Europe to European Identity Constructions Research on collective identity construction in Europe is dominated by some variants of the social identity paradigm. Social identity theory claims that identi? cations have group-speci? c effects in terms of distance and proximity. This paradigm is useful because it allows us to use existing survey data which measure the degree to which people start to be ‘proud’ of their ‘institutions’ (at least to trust them) and ‘identify’ with Europe (conceived in political or cultural terms) (Kohli, 2000).Another way is to emphasize symbols of state power, such as a ? ag, a hymn, a representative bu ilding, or the memory of a successful political act such as the act of uni? cation which can be represented in a ? ag (with 15 stars) which are made the object of ‘knowledge’ or ‘identi? cation’ with Europe. Taking such indicators at face value requires assuming that strong identi? cations and good knowledge imply strong identities. 8 But it is a long way from identi? cations to identities and there is no necessary parallelism between strong identi? cations and strong identities.A collective identity is different from what is measured when we look at the degree of identi? cation with a prede? ned set of symbols. Such research tells us about the feedback effect on the individual level in the process of collective identity construction. It tells us nothing about the Downloaded from est. sagepub. com at Sage Publications (UK) on April 26, 2012 Eder A Theory of Collective Identity mechanisms of identity construction that might provoke such feedback effects. Suc h research does not make theoretical sense of collective identity construction in Europe. 9The substantive result of the research on identi? cation with symbolic representations of European political institutions is that they continuously show a weak sense of belonging with regard to Europe, much less than exists in the nationstate. The political community as a legal space with rights and duties does not provoke identi? cation, which means that they lack meaning beyond national culture. 10 Since the basis of strong identi? cation with political symbols is dependent upon the culture within which they make sense, research has turned to cultural symbols in order to ? d something that is worth identifying with in Europe. This search was guided by the theoretical expectation that what makes national symbols worthy of identi? cation also holds for European symbols. Some people looked for this meaning in some kind of republican idea of Europe. Others were searching for it in some kind of c ultural idea of Europe. Interestingly enough, this debate reproduces the classic debate on the making of a nation over a republican conception of the nation and a cultural conception of the nation (Brubaker, 1992; Giesen, 2001).While searching for a European identity in terms of identi? cation with Europe, the space of communication in the EU expands. Something is happening that does not show up in the surveys. The problem is therefore to ? gure out how this expanding space is ? lled with new symbols that provide a sense of the limitations of that space. This sense of limitation is not necessarily linked to the symbolic representations of the European political institutions or of a particular European culture. 11 This sense is rather emerging in the course of constructing increasingly dense networks of social elations in Europe that need a collective identity as a project of their control. The proposal is to look not at political or cultural symbols but at stories that emerge in the making of a network of social relations among those living in Europe. There are at least three ways of telling such stories in Europe which are not reducible to the national tool-kit for constructing collective identities. There is a story based on a successful process of uni? cation, i. e. the story of the European integration process as a successful economic and political project, which is the basis of a European citizenship narrative.This is the story of the making of a rich, yet socially responsible continent, the story of an economic yet social Europe. There is another story that emerges from the memory of a murderous past of Europe. The space of communication based on shared memory is a potential source of strong feelings. Stories telling a shared past constitute boundaries with high emotional value. There is ? nally a story that relates to Europe as an experiment in hybrid collective identities, not as a ‘melting pot’, but as a ‘diversity pot’, whic h is a story in the making.The three stories, the story of a successful common market as a citizenship narrative, the cultural story of a shared past and the story of a ‘new’ social bond of diversity emerging in Europe might produce present-day feedback effects in the mind of Europeans – but to do so they ? rst have to have emerged as stories. Downloaded from est. sagepub. com at Sage Publications (UK) on April 26, 2012 433 434 European Journal of Social Theory 12(4) What binds Europeans into a network of social relations at the European level does not show up in established research.It only provides some indications of individual resonance to what is asked in the questionnaires which themselves rely on the model of the old European nation-states. Collective identity remains hidden in the black box of aggregated individual responses. Their answers are like remote effects of processes working behind the backs of these individuals. To excavate more systematically t he symbolic forms in which emerging identi? cations with Europe make sense and grow is the task ahead. From Normative Claims to the Analytical Description ofCollective Identities in Europe A second strand of research on a European identity which is based on a normative approach does not fare any better than the socio-psychological approach. The basic argument is that a democratic Europe needs a people conscious of itself as a people. This argument has been formulated as the ‘demos’-problem. A demos is the constituent of a democratic polity (the ‘people’), and as such it needs a collective identity that goes beyond the idea of a people as just a bunch of private interests.Democracy in Europe needs a people with an idea about themselves that links them beyond private egoistic interests. Ideally the bond should be so strong that it accepts redistributive measures by political institutions. This bond could even be conceived as something that motivates people to die for the political community they live in. 12 To die for a symbolic bond is simply a mode of sharing which mobilizes the strongest possible emotions. With such a normative standard in mind, collective identities are classi? ble as varying between the poles of being weak and being strong in terms of emotional attachment to a good thing. We could translate this normative argument into the conceptual framework of the theory proposed above and provide a sociological instead of a normative argument. Arguing that European collective identity is so far a weak identity simply says that the story of the common market does not suf? ce to control the boundaries of a space of communication linking free and equal individuals into a political community.It is argued that ‘Europe’ needs a different story than that of exchanging goods through the medium of money (i. e. the Euro). Euro coins provide a story for delimiting a common symbolic space which involves people in their being r ational individuals seeking their own advantages. It needs more, a story which tells people that they are citizens of a political community. And maybe it even needs a still stronger identity since it must generate a sense of a particular responsibility and recognition of the other European itizens which goes beyond recognizing them as co-citizens. This argument, however, has always troubled normative democratic theory since it produces a further problem that is hard to tackle within classic political theory: that those following universalizable rules for each other need a special sense to connect to some (those who are members of community) and less to others (those who are not members of the political community). This special sense is no longer based on universalistic arguments, but on narrative images. Downloaded from est. agepub. com at Sage Publications (UK) on April 26, 2012 Eder A Theory of Collective Identity The normative debate helped to denounce the idea of a common market as a mode of living together; it gave power to political institutions which started to engage in fostering and making a European identity. What this identity ? nally implies remained rather imprecise: beyond the acceptance of political institutions, this debate produced more dissent than consensus on what a European identity should look like. The debate therefore remains inconclusive.Rather than taking this debate as an explanation of identity construction, it can be taken as a series of events in the process of identity constructions that is going on within and outside these normative debates which are used to construct a particular narrative as a special (even chosen) people. Normative arguments are a part of narratives; they are embedded in narrative clauses that convey meaning to argumentative debates (Eder, in press). Normative debates are therefore an important part of the process of identity construction, part of an ongoing story that is produced in arguing about Europe.The Reference Object of a European Collective Identity Making theoretical sense of collective identities that have emerged and are continuing to crystallize in the course of European integration is a sociological programme directed at and against socio-psychological and normative approaches to European identity. Sociological approaches tell us whether, how and to what extent identity markers emerge in social processes that are situated in time and space. Normative discourses on collective identity are part of collective identities, explicit justi? ations of the boundaries of a network of social relations. Normative conceptions of a European identity are therefore part of the phenomenon that needs an explanation. The same holds for social-psychological approaches. To ? nd another starting point to analyze ongoing processes of identity construction in Europe is to take Europe as an empty signi? er. It could mean anything ranging from the identi? cation with a culture to a geographical uni ty ranging from the Atlantic to the Urals or to a unity that coincides with the legal realm of the European Union or to a unity that is de? ed by membership in the Council of Europe. We could take such ‘ideas’ as proxies for a Europe to be taken as a reference object of collective identity. Thus we could talk about a cultural Europe, a geographical Europe, a Europe of Human Rights, and a political Europe. Thus Europe is decomposed into a series of ‘Europes’ (in the plural) speci? ed by an adjective. Nevertheless, the problem of the construction of the thing to which a European identity refers remains. Collective identities refer to a space of communication, the boundaries of which vary with what is communicated.This is an implication of the theoretical assumption that collective identities are constructed through stories. Stories that link people vary with the communicative network which they constitute. Thus, the reference object of collective identities i s a network of communication with boundaries which are identi? ed and controlled by an identity. Networks of communication generate identities as a project of control of their boundaries (White, 1992). Downloaded from est. sagepub. com at Sage Publications (UK) on April 26, 2012 435 436 European Journal of Social Theory 12(4)The boundaries of Europe could be de? ned – following the national model – by political boundaries. In that case the legally de? ned space of the European Union is the referent for a collective identity. Legal de? nitions are grounded in stories that link people in that space in a particular way, mainly as citizens in that network. This network develops social relations as connections between citizens that can vary from dense to loose relationships. The trend is so far toward increasing density, measured by the increasing number of legal regulations that impinge upon the life of European citizens.This legal de? nition of a network of social relatio ns corresponds to attempts to de? ne a political control project: linking the citizens in a political identity and thus controlling the boundaries of a legal space. This very speci? c condition (legal rules as based on stories that bind) generates political identities as a project of control of the boundaries of the European political community. The story of this project is the European citizenship story which competes necessarily with the national citizenship story.National citizenship is the result of a long process of historical concept formation in which national identity emerged, integrating social and cultural differences under a new concept: citizenship (Somers, 1995). This same concept is now used to make a European identity: inventing the European citizen as the narrative core of a European identity. 13 To indicate the difference, some adjectives have been used to mark the difference of European and national identity such as the idea of cosmopolitan citizenship.Yet there is no way to avoid national citizenship stories from adopting cosmopolitanism as one of their elements. Cosmopolitanism ? ts just as well into the story of national as well as European citizenship. This story, since its beginning, has exclusively been tied to nationally de? ned networks of social actors. Thus there is an inherent dif? culty with constructions of a collective identity based on the citizenship story. This citizenship story is enriched by reference to the Common Market and to a Social Europe.Both are connected like two sides of the one coin and their combination often serves as a possible particularity of Europe that distinguishes it from the rest of the world. This object is integrated into the European citizenship story: the story of a successful process of European integration which transformed foes into friends, which transformed war into wealth and freedom (i. e. , the ‘four freedoms’). It is further supported by de? ning the role of this EUEurope in th e outer world, i. e. to de? ne Europe as an actor with a clear role in the world. 14A second reference object is European culture, mainly de? ned as its traditions. The substance of this European culture is itself contested. Europe is rather a battle? eld of cultural images that confronts the cultural traditions that have shaped Europe. This is the particular ‘cultural heritage’ of Europe. It ? nds it in its ‘values’ which are opposed to the values cherished in other cultures. These Others are, however, shifting objects: the non-European world is projected on some particular Others, sometimes on the ‘East’, sometimes on the ‘Orient’, sometimes on ‘America’.Distinguishing a European culture from such Others is a strategy for the foundation of a story about a European Self, i. e. a collective identity. Downloaded from est. sagepub. com at Sage Publications (UK) on April 26, 2012 Eder A Theory of Collective Identity The d if? culties with such a reference object which is taken as unique, clear and well-bounded lead to a third reference object based on the assumption that a European Self has never existed.Europe has many different cultures that have co-existed for centuries; this refers not only to the different national cultures that come together in Europe; it also refers to the Arab and Jewish and other Eastern cultures that have had and still have a strong impact on what we consider to be part of Europe, which are equally inside and outside of a European culture. And, ? nally, Europe has added the cultures of the Others in the course of migration movements over past decades which again cannot be assimilated without having an impact on Europe’s culture.Thus, reducing the reference object of a European culture to its ‘values’ or ‘cultural heritage’ is a simpli? cation which does not take into account the contradictory cultural orientations and the contestations about their ‘Europeanness’ in present-day Europe. What kind of story can be told about this diversity of a European culture? We can imagine a story about the many cultures and the forms in which they have encountered each other and shaped the course of cultural change in Europe.There are stories in Europe, in Southern Europe, stories about the co-existence of Arab and Norman culture, of Jewish and Christian culture, of Mongols and ‘gypsies’ in Europe. These stories often tell terrible tales which does not mean that the end of the story is hell. Thus it seems to be an open story, which can be continued and which is fostered in a Europe where these different cultures again clash – yet under different conditions from the past. Which collective identity is mobilized depends on the story that is chosen to identify the boundaries of a network of social relations that bind ‘Europeans’, i. . those living in Europe and ? ghting for its cultural orient ation, to each other. The three basic stories, the story of a common market and a Social Europe embedded in the story of a European citizenship, the story of a unique European culture, and the story of a hybrid Europe are incompatible. They will not coincide in terms of constructing a clear boundary; rather, they construct different boundaries. They tell about different ‘Europes’ (in the plural). Thus, European identity emerges as something with varying boundaries, depending upon which story we tell.Whether there is an overall story connecting these stories and transforming them into one ‘European story’ depends upon a series of restrictive conditions. According to the theoretical model presented above, this has to do, ? rst, with the evolution of networks of social relations in Europe, and then with the structural properties of these different stories which determine their narrative connectivity. The question could be answered in the positive to the extent that Europe develops social relations in which the economic, legal and cultural boundaries coincide, as was the case in national societies. 5 Such homogeneity of the economic, cultural and the political dimension is not given in the European context. Europe is characterized by the non-coincidence of these different boundaries. Taking Europe as a unique culture disembedded from its political institutional framework goes beyond the national model yet keeps the assumption of a homogeneous culture. Taking Europe as a hybrid form of social relations gives up even the assumption of clear cultural boundaries of a Europe in search of its identity. Downloaded from est. sagepub. com at Sage Publications (UK) on April 26, 2012 437 438 European Journal of Social Theory 12(4)Looking at European identity as a project of control of a European society, the assumption resulting from the ‘evolutionary’ part of the theory presented above is that in a European society being more than any other society in need of a collective identity, we have to expect emergent patterns of constructing a collective identity in the context of culturally non-congruent multiple networks of social relations. Whether there will be a story of the three stories thus becomes a new issue for research. The ? rst observation is that the multiplicity of networks of social relations evolving in Europe allows more stories to ? w within these networks. Since such systems are composed of loosely coupled partial networks, the narrative mediation of the loose coupling of a diversity of networks of social relations becomes the focal problem of these networks of social relations. Since coupling is – as the theory claims – mediated by narrative meaning, the issue of how stories can link such networks of social relations and generate an identity of these networks is the key problem. Since social relations in such systems are held together by a multiplicity of stories, the solution of one he gemonic story no longer works.Europe is confronted with coordinating at least three hegemonic stories. In the following, these three model stories for constructing a collective identity for Europe are discussed more systematically. The idea is to distinguish three formal network structures of social relations on which projects of de? ning an identity for Europe are built. These will be distinguished as supranational, postnational, and transnational identity constructions of Europe. Three stories can be related to these model identities. They are used to make sense of these constructions and provide the collective resonance that can absorb ? ating identi? cations in Europe. Supranational identity constructions make use of the plot of the ‘Jean Monnet success story’. Postnational identity constructions follow the plot of ‘And they will live in peace together forever’. Transnational identity constructions ? nally work with the plot of a ‘broker Europeâ⠂¬â„¢. 16 These three stories provide narratives with which different models of networks of social relations, i. e. different types of societies, can be produced and reproduced. These elements are organized in a speci? c sequence which gives narrative meaning to these elements.Thus identities can be analyzed as being more than a series of identi? cations with a market, a polity or a culture; they can be analyzed as a speci? c sequential pattern of organizing such identi? cations into a coherent whole which is a story. Models of Collective Identities in Europe The ? rst model story links national stories directly to a supranational story. National stories become part of a network of stories which has a ‘star structure’: national stories are linked to a centre which constitutes the connection between national stories via this centre, without direct links between the units of this narrative network.It is only via the centre that the national identities are integrated into a higher one. This does not require direct links between the Downloaded from est. sagepub. com at Sage Publications (UK) on April 26, 2012 Eder A Theory of Collective Identity national stories. The meaning of national stories is dependent upon their relationship to the centre: the closer to the centre, the more it provides elements of an emerging European story; the further from the centre, the more such elements become irrelevant. Thus there is permanent struggle going on in which the link to the emerging story is contested.This particular network structure can be called a supranational story since it relies on the emergence of a distinct story of something that is decoupled from national stories. This supranational story is the becoming story of Europe which so far has only a brief history (60 years). It can be extended by adding precursors, either in the twenties of the last century, or in the course of the nineteenth century. Sites for constructing such a centre-oriented network are especially Brussels and Strasbourg. The Council of Europe is trying to tell such a supranational story, de? ing the boundaries of Europe in a larger perspective than a more closed EU story does. Rituals of enacting this EU story are European summits, European days, giving meaning to Europe’s ? ag and anthem. A case for such a supranational story is the story of Jean Monnet as the founding father of United Europe, which can have a more ef? ciency-oriented version, a version tending towards some idea of moral and political excellence of European politics, or a version of a common European culture that is defended and kept by European institutions. Also counter-narratives add to this supranational story.The critique of an Empire Europe, mobilizations against Fortress Europe or the general critique of Brussels as a site of arrogance of power contribute to the making of a supranational story of Europe. The second model story is based on a particular mode of linking national s tories. National stories are networked through direct links which do not crystallize around a centre. European identity appears as a network of national networks. This emerging network minimizes the distances between the parts of the network (maximizing its geodetic distances) and follows the pattern of a ‘clique structure’.This clique network structure produces postnational identity as its control project. Postnational identity is the added value of merging national stories into shared stories. The distances between the national stories in Europe vary, yet their interaction forces them to position themselves in relation to other national stories without ending up in isolation from some or all of these other stories. The story that is told about Europe is then a story in which the relations between national stories and their actors are at stake.Winners and losers, heroes and perpetrators of the recent past and of the present are related, change position and try to ? nd a new position in an emerging European script. Germans and Austrians are repositioned as well as Poles or Hungarians; Italians and French have to struggle to position their heroes in this emerging postnational script. Euro-scepticism and Euro-af? rmativism spread across the national heroes. Euroscepticism is no longer connected only to the English and af? rmativism is no longer the domain of the Germans.The emerging story turns into a postnational story where national actors try to relate their proper stories to those of the others by looking for a position in a postnational plot in Europe. Downloaded from est. sagepub. com at Sage Publications (UK) on April 26, 2012 439 440 European Journal of Social Theory 12(4) Sites for staging this star-structured network are WWII rituals and Holocaust rituals where a European story is enacted. European ? lm rituals or European soccer games provide an analogous opportunity to de? ne a social relation between Europeans that makes narrative sense beyond the nation.A case for such a postnational identity is retelling the story of the winners of WWII by including the losers. Another case is the Holocaust, a traumatic story linking victims and perpetrators across nations. It also appears in counternarratives of a Eurosceptic Europe which mobilizes the losers of Europeanization across national boundaries in Europe in favour of the nation as the exclusive site for solidarity. 17 The third model story can be identi? ed which describes Europe as a site in which cultural differences cut across national differences, thus creating a different structure of cleavages among the people in Europe.This third model is based on networks of groups interacting across national borders and creating a unity out of an increasing diversity of national and non-national elements. This network structure differs from the others in the sense that it does not provide direct interactive links between its parts, yet produces an ordered network of social re lations. It is a network integrated by the structural equivalence of the positions of groups of actors. Indigenous and immigrant and migrating people are related to each other as claiming or occupying structurally equivalent positions in an emerging European society.Such a transnational story fosters the narrative of hybridity, the equal participation in a diversity of cultures in Europe. Sites for such transnational relations fostering hybrid collective identities are particular places in Europe where hybridity has been lived for some time. Cases are the commemoration of hybrid cultures in Southern Spain, Southern Italy, Sicily and Turkey or Europe or the commemoration of Europe’s Abrahamic past fostered by the re-entry of the Islamic and the Jewish story into Europe’s Christian story.Stories of hybrid Europe are narrated as model cases for a Europe where distinct religious traditions succeeded in living together in peace and reciprocal enrichment. The Jewish story is seen as an instance of brokerage between Europe and the Other of Europe in a way similar to the Islamic story which can be seen as a bridge between Europe and the Other of Europe. There exist also counter-narratives of a transnational Europe which is ‘tribal Europe’, the idea of a Europe based on primordial ties that precede concrete interaction ties and which claim structural equivalence on the basis of some constructed common origin.Such hybrid constructions reposition Europe and its Other in a way that transgresses the basic assumptions of the ? rst two models. The ? rst two models still assume a core substance de? ning Europe that is realized in social relations of communication and understanding. The third model provides a model story in which cleavages and unbridgeable differences undermine the search for a coherent ‘good story’, for the simple story plot of a good Europe. Yet there is still a story to tell, i. e. the story of the art of living toget her. This art requires competent re? xive actors, engaging in demanding performances which do not presuppose understanding but take understanding as a rare and happy moment in a series of permanent misunderstandings. Downloaded from est. sagepub. com at Sage Publications (UK) on April 26, 2012 Eder A Theory of Collective Identity Transnational identity as a project of control of networks of social relations that engage in permanent crossovers is embedded in a story which makes itself the object of a story: it is re? exive storytelling. It combines many and different stories and mixes them in an unforeseeable way.Europe provides a site for such re? exive storytelling which is increasingly used for hybrid constructions: a European Islam, a European Jewry, a European Christianity, a European secularism and universalism which emerge from the encounter and hybridization of traditions and cultures inside and outside Europe. Europe in this sense is an experimental site for a collective ide ntity that differs in all respects from historical experience. European Identity as a Case of Transnational Identity Construction Europe has more than one story.At the same time, this society has developed a discourse about itself in which it thematizes itself stating that it has so many stories that bind and separate. Thus, European society is an ideal case for studying the link between increasing complexity and the search for narrative bonds. How are these stories combined? Is there a story of the stories, a meta-story to tell in Europe? A meta-story that might gain hegemonic status as the national story did in the modern nation-state. This question cannot be answered in an af? rmative way.The answer has to be decomposed into the sequential ordering of these stories and their points of contact. We have to look at the temporal dimension of the use of this tool-kit in which some boundaries of what constitutes Europe have been left aside, while others have gained in prominence and ol der ones have been reframed. We have to deal with a dynamic process that accompanies the construction of Europe as a political community from its beginning. The creation of a narrative network is a process exhibiting sequential patterns and generating constraints on reproducing the social relations created so far.In this sense, collective identity is a process of creating a space of social relations which never ends. Yet it is possible for the analytical observer to block the future of such processes in a thought experiment and describe in which sense the future to come can be ? xed. The idea of the nation has succeeded in blocking the future of collective identity construction for a long time. The temptation to ? x it forever has ended in a series of national civil wars and ethnic cleansings which undermined this process of telling one story with a ? xed end.The process of creating a collective identity in Europe in the same vein would end up in two analogous bottlenecks: the ? rst is that it would be premature to block the process of organizing social relations in terms of one collective identity because there are many collective identities that are used to structure an unsettled space of social relations; the second is that blocking the future might in principle be counter-productive since it would create high identitarian con? icts over which boundary has to be recognized and which not. Downloaded from est. sagepub. com at Sage Publications (UK) on April 26, 2012 41 442 European Journal of Social Theory 12(4) When we block the making of a European story, then we see something that is more arti? cial than any of those that have managed to provide the narrative network for social relations such as ideas of ‘nation’, ‘empire’, ‘lineage’ or ‘caste’. Terms such as hybrid identity are fashionable and point to the temporary and unstable mix of different stories controlling the boundaries of a space of communicat ion. Europe has a moving boundary which depends on the story we mobilize. To give precedence to the political story is an unwarranted move.Political identities compete with other stories. The emerging competition of political and cultural stories in the debate on the link between politics and religion is an indicator of a moving link. The link between the economic story and the cultural story is equally dynamic as the ? ghts about a neo-liberal economy and social economy show (Boltanski and Chiapello, 1999). A European narrative is a dynamic combination of different stories that will produce a dynamic form of collective identity, i. e. favour a permanent process of constructing and reconstructing a European identity.To reduce it to a neoliberal or a cosmopolitan or a traumatic identity misses the emergent property of their parallel existence. This is still a highly abstract conclusion yet it points to the basically temporal character of identity constructions which vary in terms of their openness toward the future. Collective identities emerging from such processes are increasingly multidimensional and multilayered. Stories by which identities are constructed do not simply co-exist but rather in? uence each other and produce emergent properties through multiple forms of recombination.Evolutionary theory proposes ‘recombination’ as a result of processes of generating new elements (stories) and their selection in the course of building up social relations among human beings. It, however, has nothing to say on how such recombination works. This is an open space that is to be ? lled. Theoretically speaking, we have to expect structural restrictions and opportunities for stories to combine or to separate. Instead of identifying ‘collective identities’ as entities, we should see identities as evolutionary products of processes in which stories are combined and recombined.Europe is an ideal case for such a theoretical perspective: Europe pro duces stories about itself in the permanent confrontation with stories about the Other which again produces effects in the Other who produces his own stories by looking at the ? rst as the Other (the case in point is the reciprocal storytelling that takes place between Europe and Turkey or Europe and Russia). Such reciprocal storytelling produces shifting identities in which permanent identity mutation takes place. These processes can be halted by political identities with the risk of entering into identitarian struggles with cultural identities.They can be halted by cultural identities with the risk of entering into con? ict with political identities. And economic identities can try to block the future while provoking political and cultural identities. What could emerge is a story of con? icting stories, a re? exive meta-story in which we tell each other about the futile attempts to block the future. But this is mere speculation. Downloaded from est. sagepub. com at Sage Publicatio ns (UK) on April 26, 2012 Eder A Theory of Collective Identity ConclusionThe debate on European collective identity so far has not been able to establish a systematic link between the forms of collective identity constructions and the networks of social relations in which this process is embedded. Thus, theorizing European identity has lost its empirical foundation. This loss has been compensated for in two ways: by a thin theoretical strategy which is to reduce the issue of collective identity to the issue of the extent of identi? cation with Europe, or by a thick theoretical strategy which uses nation-building as the model for collective identity construction in Europe.The thin strategy does not tackle collective identity constructions since identi? cations are elements of collective identity construction, but not its organizing core. The thick strategy assumes that Europe will develop in a way analogous to the national story, which is an unwarranted assumption. Variations in publ ic pride or identi? cation with Europe as measured in surveys indicate the resonance of a people to stories that serve for identity construction. A collective identity might produce identi? cations, and thick identities produce a lot of strong identi? cations. But collective identity is not the result of identi? ations, it is rather the object to which identi? cations refer. The explanation of the construction of collective identity must therefore be sought independent of the identi? cations that it produces. The proposal made in this article has been to analyze the construction of collective identities in Europe by looking at the sites where debates on its identity take place. The market has been mainly devalued and even denounced as a site for a collective identity, in spite of the fact that the success story of the Common Market would have offered a good institutional starting point. 8 The central debate on a European identity focuses on a politically de? ned collective identity, such as the discourse on constitutional patriotism in Europe or on a secular legal culture in Europe such as the one represented in the Council of Europe. However, the cultural symbols mobilized by this Council are universal values that not only the people in Europe share. This reduces boundary controlling effects and undermines the construction of a strong collective identity. Another variant is the claim that an ethical self-understanding is binding those living in the EU together (Kantner, 2006). 9 These arguments are not explanations of processes of identity constructions, but elements in stories providing projects of control of the boundaries of ‘Europe’. Thus, we have several sites in which stories circulate that compete for hegemony in the process of collective identity construction in Europe. Its social basis is a society that constitutes itself in overlapping circles. These networks no longer coincide as they do in the national situation. Thus, the social embe dding of identity constructions poses a new theoretical problem: the idea of a society that consists of partially overlapping networks of people.Each of these networks has its own stories that compete to represent each of these networks. This produces a dynamic of identity construction which needs analytical description and theoretical explanation. Analytically we have to understand the complex interplay of many stories circulating in partially overlapping networks. And we have to identify Downloaded from est. sagepub. com at Sage Publications (UK) on April 26, 2012 443 444 European Journal of Social Theory 12(4) when and where stories can be linked with other stories, by identifying the structural restrictions and opportunities for the connectivity of stories.Thus, we can take seriously the idea of Europe as a multilayered society of partially overlapping networks in which a plurality of stories is circulating and a new story of stories can be created and narrated. For the time bei ng, we have to reckon with a plurality of projects of collective identities in Europe which vary in their combination in time. This plurality might turn out to be an advantage: instead of imposing a hegemonic ‘grand narrative’, Europe can live with a diversity of stories that need only one property: to offer nodes as docking stations for other stories.Thus storytelling in Europe will be an open process, capable of taking up new stories without assimilating them. The only criterion that counts is: to be able to continue to tell a story. Identity is a contested concept – this was the observation at the beginning. The end of the theoretical story is the observation that Europe is a space with contested stories and that it is through contestation that stories that bind can be told. In this space the links between stories will multiply and connect many other stories that so far nobody considered to be part of Europe.The emergence of a new society in Europe and the tem porary blocking of its future in terms of constructing a plurality of European collective identities form the phenomenon that we have to understand. This makes the analysis of a ‘European identity’ a demanding theoretical, methodological and empirical task. The conclusions to be drawn from the foregoing discussion are recipes for further research. For the moment I see four such proposals for organizing research on collective identity in the context of Europe and for generalizing from this context to some model of collective identity beyond the nation: †¢ †¢ †¢ Identifying sites and stories of the narrative network that emerges in Europe. Identifying the story structure organizing this narrative network. Describing this narrative network as a project of control of social relations (and its boundaries) in Europe. Explaining the turning points in the evolution of the narrative network by the social relations between people, regions, civil society organizatio ns, economic organizations and ? nally nation-states that emerge in the course of Europeanization. By applying these proposals we do not need psychological assumptions such as a minimum of ‘identi? ations with Europe’ in order to see ‘identity’ in Europe and explain its emergence and evolution. If there is a collective identity, then identi? cation will come – more or less, depending on social structures that develop in the emerging society in Europe. Notes 1 I leave aside the idea of humankind as an identity construction beyond the nation since it leads to the other pole of the identity of individuals. Humankind is the sum of such individuals. Whether the idea of cosmopolitan identity goes beyond this aggregate notion of individual identity has to be seen. Downloaded from est. agepub. com at Sage Publications (UK) on April 26, 2012 Eder A Theory of Collective Identity 2 Forms of identity beyond the individual are another theme which is raised in the context of debates on ‘subjectivity’. 3 The authors cite Tilly (1995), Somers (1994, 1995) and Calhoun (1994). 4 This also implies an argument against psychological theories that see collective identity as something that people need to identify with. I rather take a Durkheimian view seeing collective identity as a social fact imposed upon us and forcing u